AQA A level Psychology Glossary

ABC/ABCDE model
The ABC/ABCDE model proposed by Ellis, is used to explain and treat depression. A is the activating event, B is the (irrational) belief about the event, C is the consequence of the belief, D is disputing the belief, and E is replacing the belief with effective feelings.

absorption addiction model
The absorption addiction model explains parasocial relationships, proposing that people may become ‘absorbed’ (preoccupied with a celebrity) to compensate for deficiencies in their lives, which may lead to addiction (consumed and controlled by their focus on a celebrity).

abstract
In a scientific report, the abstract is the section that summarises the investigation. It includes a brief description of the aims, hypotheses, procedure, results, and conclusions.

accommodation
In Piaget’s theory of cognitive development, accommodation occurs when new information cannot be assimilated into an existing schema, so a new schema is formed.

accumulation
In relation to stress, accumulation is when many daily stressors build up to make a person feel constantly frustrated and irritated.

addiction
Addiction is when an individual compulsively engages in a pleasurable behaviour that eventually has adverse consequences.

addiction-prone personality scale (APP)
The addiction-prone personality scale (APP) is a tool to assess the influence of personality factors on addictive behaviour. It can predict the severity of addiction and likelihood of remission during recovery.

adrenaline
Adrenaline is a hormone released by the adrenal glands in response to stressful or dangerous situations. It causes physiological changes, such as an increased heart rate, and prepares the body for a fight or flight response.

affectionless psychopath
An affectionless psychopath is someone who feels no empathy, guilt, or regard for the feelings of others; Bowlby believed that maternally deprived children could become affectionless psychopaths.

agentic shift
In explanations for obedience, the term agentic shift refers to the transition from the autonomous (independent) state to the agentic state. This occurs when a person perceives another person to be a legitimate authority figure.

agentic state
In explanations for obedience, the term agentic state refers to when a person feels they are acting on behalf of another person (as an agent) and carrying out their wishes.

aim
In an experimental method, the aim is a general statement of what a researcher hopes to achieve from their investigation; an aim differs from a hypothesis.

alpha bias
Alpa bias is a type of gender bias that exaggerates the differences between men and women to the detriment of one gender (usually women).

amplification
In relation to stress, amplification is when the stress from a life event causes daily hassles to feel more stressful than usual.

amygdala
The amygdala is part of the limbic system of the brain that evaluates sensory information and forms an appropriate emotional response, including aggression.

androcentrism
The term androcentrism refers to when things, including theories or views, are male-centred or based on a male viewpoint.

androgyny
Psychological androgyny is a personality type that has a balance of masculine and feminine traits, attitudes, or behaviours. The concept was introduced by Sandra Bem and is assessed and classified further using the Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI).

anger management
Anger management is a form of cognitive behavioural therapy that aims to change the way people think about situations that provoke anger, so that they are less likely to use violence in response.

anorexia nervosa (AN)
Anorexia nervosa (AN) is an eating disorder that is characterised by an abnormally low body weight, an intense fear of gaining weight, and a distorted body image.

antisocial personality disorder (ASPD)
Antisocial personality disorder (ASPD) is a mental health condition characterised by a lack of empathy and regard for other people; it has many personality risk factors for addiction, including impulsivity.

anxiety
Anxiety is a feeling of fearfulness or unease. These emotions can cause physiological responses such as an increased heart rate.

assimilation
In Piaget’s theory of cognitive development, assimilation is when new information is added to existing schemas.

atavistic form
Atavistic form is a biological explanation for criminality proposed by Lombroso, who believed that offenders are born with a criminal personality due to being primitive throwbacks (less evolved) unable to cope with modern society.

atonement
A process in restorative justice where a criminal atones or ‘pays’ for their crime, for example by showing remorse or working to fix the damage they caused.

attachment theory
Attachment theory explains how emotional bonds form between an individual (usually an infant) and their care-giver, which has implications for behaviours in adulthood.

atypical antipsychotic
Antipsychotics are drugs used to treat schizophrenia (SCZ). Atypical antipsychotics, such as clozapine, were developed to combat the side effects of typical antipsychotics and are effective in treating both positive symptoms of SCZ (hallucinations and delusions) and negative (cognitive) symptoms.

auditory centre
The auditory centre is an area of the temporal lobe of the cerebral cortex of the brain that processes information about speech and sounds.

Authoritarian Personality
The Authoritarian Personality refers to a personality characterised by an extreme respect for authority or authority figures. People with this personality show unquestioning obedience to those who hold power over them and strictly follow traditional values. It has been refined as a cluster of three personality variables referred to as right-wing authoritarianism (RWA).

autonomic nervous system (ANS)
The autonomic nervous system (ANS) makes up part of the peripheral nervous system (PNS). It is a network of neurons that regulates involuntary bodily processes, such as heart rate, respiration, digestion, and stress responses. It operates automatically, without conscious direction.

autonomous state
The autonomous (independent) state is where a person acts independently, making their own decisions.

autonomy and control
Autonomy and control refers to when a person feels free to make their own decisions and feels as if they are in charge of their life.

aversion therapy
Aversion therapy is a behaviour intervention that uses counterconditioning to treat addiction: it aims to change the conditioned response of pleasure from the addictive behaviour to one that is unpleasant (aversive).

avolition
Avolition is an inability to start and maintain goal-directed activities due to apathy.

bar chart
A bar chart is a type of graph that shows data in categories (nominal or discrete data). Bars must not touch to indicate the data is not continuous.

behaviour modification
Behaviour modification is a treatment approach that uses operant conditioning to encourage more positive behaviours, for example by using token economy.

behavioural approach
The behavioural approach is an approach to psychology that assumes all behaviours are learned.

behavioural categories
Behavioural categories are specific, clearly defined actions or behaviours that are observed and recorded as part of an investigation.

behaviourist approach
The behaviourist approach is an approach to investigative psychology that assumes that only behaviour that can be observed and measured should be investigated, that scientific experiments and processes should be used, and that animals can replace humans in experiments.

Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI)
The Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI) is a test (questionnaire) devised by Sandra Bem that assesses and scores the level of masculine and feminine traits, to provide a behaviour classification of either masculine, feminine, androgynous, or undifferentiated.

benzodiazepine (BZ)
Benzodiazepines (BZs) are a group of anti-anxiety drugs that work by binding to GABA receptors on postsynaptic neurons, making it harder for other neurotransmitters to stimulate the neuron and boosting the inhibitory/calming effect of the neurotransmitter GABA.

beta bias
Beta bias is a type of gender bias that minimises the differences between men and women to the detriment of one gender (usually women); it assumes that what is true for men is also true for women.

beta blocker (BB)
Beta blockers (BBs) are a group of anti-anxiety drugs that work by binding to beta-receptors in the cells of the heart and other parts of the body affected by the sympathomedullary pathway (SAM), blocking the action of adrenaline and noradrenaline.

biofeedback
Biofeedback uses the electronic monitoring of automatic bodily (physiological) responses to stress, along with relaxation techniques to acquire control over those functions, to manage stress.

biological approach
The biological approach assumes that psychological functions are rooted in our biology, so our thoughts, feelings and behaviours have a physical basis.

biological determinism
Biological determinism is the idea that a person’s behaviour and characteristics are determined or controlled through biological factors such as genes, hormones, neuronal activity, and evolutionary adaptations.

biological reductionism
Biological reductionism is the process of reducing complex phenomena, such as mental disorders, into constituent biological parts, such as the action of genes or neurotransmitters.

biological rhythm
A biological rhythms is a series of physiological changes that occur in the body, in cycles, such as the sleep/wake cycle.

boomerang effect
The term boomerang effect is used when social norms interventions achieve the opposite of what they intended.

borderline-pathological
The third level of parasocial relationship on the Celebrity Attitude Scale (CAS) is borderline-pathological, where the fan has uncontrollable fantasies and behaviours, and they agree with statements like ‘If I walked through the door of my favourite celebrity’s house, they would be happy to see me’.

bottom-up approach
The bottom-up approach refers to an approach in creating an offender profile that is data driven, making use of investigative psychology and geographical profiling.

boundary model
The boundary model is a theory that explains why dieting may lead to overeating. It is based on the idea that dieters have a high satiety threshold; when they impose a boundary that is set lower than satiety and exceed it, they overeat.

British Psychological Society (BPS) code of ethics
The British Psychological Society (BPS) code of ethics is a set of principles produced by the BPS that advises researchers on ethical dilemmas, and gives guidelines on how to protect participants, wider society and the reputation of psychology.

Broca’s area
Broca’s area is an area of the frontal lobe of the cerebral cortex of the brain that is responsible for speech production.

calculated value of S
The calculated value of S is a numerical value determined in the sign test, a test for statistical significance. It is the value of the least frequent sign (pluses or minuses) in the dataset.

capacity
In relation to memory, capacity refers to how much information can be stored.

cardiovascular disorder (CVD)
Cardiovascular disorders (CVDs) are a range of conditions affecting the heart or blood vessels, which can lead to heart attacks, strokes, and other health problems.

case study
A case study is a detailed investigation of an individual, institution, event, or group. A case study is often used to illustrate a theory or principle.

central executive (CE)
In relation to the working model of memory, the central executive (CE) is the part of the memory that directs attention from either the senses or the long-term memory (LTM) to one of the sub-systems in order to complete tasks.

central nervous system (CNS)
The central nervous system (CNS) is the body’s master control unit of its internal communication system, consisting of the brain and spinal cord.

chromosome
Chromosomes are structures of protein and DNA present in the nucleus of almost every cell in the body.

chunking
Chunking is the process of breaking down large pieces of information into smaller units (chunks) to make them easier to memorise and recall.

circadian rhythm
Circadian rhythms are biological rhythms that operate on approximately a 24-hour cycle, such as the sleep/wake cycle.

class inclusion
In Piaget’s theory of cognitive development, class inclusion means understanding that objects can be included into classifications (categories) and subsets, for example dogs are included in both the dog and animal classifications.

classical conditioning
Classical conditioning refers to a type of learning by association, where two different stimuli become associated with each other.

closed question
A closed question is a question in a questionnaire or interview that has a fixed range of answers and tends to produce quantitative data.

coding
In relation to memory, coding refers to how information is written into our memory, for example either acoustically or semantically.

coding unit
In relation to content analysis, coding units are categories generated from the aim, similar to behavioural categories in an observation. For example, for analysing antisocial behaviours in a music video, the coding units may be fighting, use of guns, swearing, etc.

cognitive approach
The cognitive approach is an approach to psychology that assumes internal mental processes like memory, perception, and thinking should be studied scientifically.

cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT)
Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) is type of talking therapy used to treat conditions such as depression and anxiety, which aims to replace negative, faulty thoughts with more positive and rational ones.

cognitive behavioural therapy for psychosis (CBTp)
Cognitive behavioural therapy for psychosis (CBTp) is a type of cognitive behavioural therapy used to treat schizophrenia by helping to change the faulty, irrational thoughts associated with delusions and hallucinations.

cognitive bias
Cognitive bias is a distorted or irrational belief or thought process (or pattern of thought processes) that conflicts with reality, and may influence a person’s attention and memory linked to the belief.

cognitive distortion
A cognitive distortion is a misperception of reality or a negative thinking pattern that is biased or distorted, so it conflicts with reality.

cognitive explanation
In relation to schizophrenia (SCZ), a cognitive explanation is the idea that the symptoms are caused by dysfunctional thought processing, in particular metarepresentation dysfunction and central control dysfunction.

cognitive interview (CI)
The cognitive interview (CI) is a method of questioning eyewitnesses to a crime, used by the police, which aims to increase the eyewitnesses’ accuracy of recall.

cognitive neuroscience
Cognitive neuroscience is the study of the influence of brain structures on mental processes. Scanning techniques like fMRI allow psychologists to see which structures in the brain are active for different functions.

cognitive priming
The term cognitive priming refers to when the brain is programmed or primed to behave in specific ways in response to environmental cues.

cognitive theory
Cognitive theory is an approach to psychology that aims to explain human behaviour by studying mental processes.

co-morbidity
A co-morbidity is a disease or health condition that a person experiences at the same time as another one.

comparison level (CL)
In social exchange theory, the comparison level (CL) is a judgement of how much an individual is benefitting from a relationship, based on comparing their current partner to all their previous partners and their expectations of what a relationship should be. 

comparison level for alternatives (CLA)
In social exchange theory, the comparison level for alternatives (CLA) is a judgement of how much an individual is benefitting from a relationship, based on comparing their current partner to all their previous partners, their expectations of what a relationship should be, and possible attractive alternatives.

comparison with alternatives
In Rusbult’s investment model, the comparison with alternatives refers to alternative options to staying with the current partner.

complementarity
In filter theory, complementarity refers to where partners in a relationship have different traits and qualities that fit together well.

complex matching
The term complex matching refers to when people can attract others of a much higher physical attractiveness by compensating with other desirable qualities, such as wealth or kindness.

compliance
Compliance is a type of conformity where a person changes publicly but not privately; they don’t agree with the majority, but they go along with it temporarily to fit in.

compulsion
A compulsion is a behaviour, such as hand washing or counting, that is repeatedly and excessively performed by someone (for example, in obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)).

computer model
In relation to cognitive psychology, the computer model refers to the language and functions of computing, such as ‘input’, ‘coding’ and ‘stores’, to explain how information is processed and stored in the brain.

COMT gene
The COMT gene is involved in regulating mood; a variation of the gene results in higher levels of dopamine, which is linked to obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD).

concurrent validity
Concurrent validity is when the same person completes an already established questionnaire or psychological test on a characteristic, such as depression, and a new one. If their scores correlate by 0.8 or more, the new measure is valid.

conformity
Conformity is a form of social influence where a person changes their values, attitudes, and behaviours to fit in with the majority group, despite being given no instruction to do so.

confounding variable (CV)
In experimental methods, a confounding variable is a variable that systematically changes with the independent variable. This means the researcher can’t be sure whether it’s the independent variable or confounding variable that causes the effect on the dependent variable.

congruence
In humanistic psychology, the term congruence refers to when the ideal self (what we think we should be) aligns with our actual self (who we actually are).

conservation
In Piaget’s theory of cognitive development, the term conservation is the mathematical principle that quantity stays the same despite appearance (for example, the same volume of water will look different in a tall thin glass compared to a short fat one).

content analysis
A content analysis is an indirect observational technique used to analyse the content of media. Coding units are analysed to transform the data from qualitative to quantitative and to draw conclusions.

context-dependent forgetting
Context-dependent forgetting is when a person forgets information because the environment (context) in which a person is trying to recall the information is different to the environment in which it was learned.

controlled observation
An observation is a non-experimental method of investigating behaviour where researchers watch and/or listen to participants. A controlled observation takes place in a laboratory setting, with all participants experiencing identical procedures.

correlation
A correlation is a non-experimental analysis of the relationship between two co-variables; correlation can be positive, negative, or zero and is given a value called the correlation coefficient.

correlation coefficient
The correlation coefficient is a number between -1 and +1 that signifies the strength and direction of the relationship between two co-variables (correlation). The closer the figure is to -1 or +1, the stronger the correlation.

cortisol
Cortisol is a hormone released by the adrenal cortex in response to fear or stress, which has various effects including providing a quick burst of energy and increasing the body’s pain threshold, to help deal with the stressor, but also reduces the function of the body’s immune system.

counterbalancing
Counterbalancing is a method for controlling order effects in a repeated measures experimental design. Known as the ABBA procedure, half the participants do condition A followed by condition B, and the other half do condition B followed by condition A. This balances the effects of order between the conditions of the independent variable.

counter-conditioning
Counter-conditioning is a behavioural technique used in therapy that aims to replace a negative response to a stimulus with a more positive one, where the negative response is paired with a positive stimulus to create a new association.

co-variables
Co-variables are two or more variables that are measured in an experiment to determine if there is a relationship (correlation) between them.

covert observation
An observation is a non-experimental method of investigating behaviour where researchers watch and/or listen to participants. In a covert observation, participants don’t know they are being watched, for example they are watched from a hidden location.

covert sensitisation
Covert sensitisation is a type of aversion therapy that aims to treat addiction by using an imagined, rather than actual, aversive stimulus.

critical period
According to Bowlby, the critical period is the stage in a baby’s development when it needs to attach to its caregiver. The optimal time is 3–6 months.

critical value
In the statistical testing of data, the critical value is a numerical value found in a statistical table, that the calculated/observed value is compared to, to test for significance.

critical value of S
The critical value of S is a numerical value found in a statistical table, that the calculated value of S in a sign test is compared to, to test for significance.

cue reactivity
Cue reactivity is a form of classical conditioning in drug addition, where cues associated with a drug (secondary reinforcers) produce similar physiological and psychological responses to the drug itself; an individual reacts to the cues by craving the drug.

cultural bias
Cultural bias in psychology is when people are judged on the basis of a researcher’s own cultural assumptions; people may be judged as abnormal because a researcher is interpreting their behaviour through the values and standards of the researcher’s own culture.

cultural relativism
Cultural relativism is the idea that behaviour can only be interpreted and understood if it is regarded from the viewpoint of the culture being studied.

culture
Culture refers to the ideas, customs, and social behaviours of a particular society, which binds it together.

custodial sentence
A custodial sentence is when an offender must spend time in a closed institution, such as a prison, psychiatric hospital, or young offender’s institute.

daily hassle
A daily hassle is a minor, everyday event that is negative and causes stress, such as a difficult commute to college or irritating family members.

daily uplift
A daily uplift is a minor, everyday event that is positive and relieves stress, such as a joke with a friend or a hug from a partner.

defence mechanisms
Defence mechanisms are methods that are used by people to unconsciously protect themselves from distressing thoughts or feelings. Defence mechanisms include repression, denial, and displacement.

de-individuation
De-individuation is when people feel anonymous because they don’t feel identifiable and are therefore more likely to feel no personal responsibility for their actions.

delusion
A delusion is a strongly held or persistent distorted (false) belief that contradicts reality.

demand characteristics
Demand characteristics are cues or clues that cause participants in an investigation to guess the purpose of a study and behave in a way they think is expected (please-U) or try to sabotage the experiment (screw-U).

denial
Denial is a defence mechanism where a person refuses to accept reality.

dependent variable (DV)
The dependent variable (DV) is the variable in an experiment that is being measured or tested.

depression
Depression is a mental health condition characterised by a persistent low mood and negative, irrational thoughts.

descriptive statistics
Descriptive statistics are numerical methods used to describe and summarise data by showing patterns and trends, including the mean, median, mode, range and standard deviation.

desensitisation
Desensitisation is a process where an emotional response (e.g. fear or anxiety) to a stimulus (e.g. violence) is reduced the more an individual is exposed to the stimulus (e.g. in the media).

determinism
Determinism is the concept that human behaviour is controlled (or determined) by internal or external forces.

deterrence
In relation to offending behaviour, deterrence is when the threat of punishment, such as a custodial sentence, deters or discourages people from offending or reoffending.

deviation from ideal mental health (DIMH)
Deviation from ideal mental health (DIMH) is a way of defining abnormality that focuses on what makes someone ‘normal’ rather than ‘abnormal’.

deviation from social norms
Deviation from social norms is a way of defining abnormality in terms of breaking the social norms (rules of society), i.e. what a culture generally considers to be acceptable behaviour.

diachronic consistency
Diachronic consistency refers to a type of minority influence, when the minority present the same message over time.

diathesis-stress model
The diathesis-stress model is the concept that the onset of a condition is due to a combination of biological factors (a diathesis) and psychological factors (stress).

differential association theory
Differential association theory is a social learning theory that identifies that individuals learn the values, attitudes, and behaviours of crime from the people and social groups they associate with.

direct reinforcement
Direct reinforcement is part of social learning theory and is when learning is through classical and operant conditioning.

directional hypothesis
A directional hypothesis is a statement that predicts a specific result in response to a change in the independent variable in an investigation. It is used when conclusions have been made from previous research.

discussion
The discussion is the section of a scientific report that briefly summarises the findings, offers an explanation for what the results show, identifies methodological limitations, and discusses the implications of the research.

disinhibited attachment
Disinhibited attachment is an attachment disorder where children are clingy, attention-seeking, and try to attach to adult strangers.

disinhibition
In relation to diet, disinhibition is when a person overeats despite satiety. In relation to aggression, disinhibition is when children are more willing to display aggression because their consumption of violent media has normalised it.

disinhibitor
A disinhibitor is a cue that weakens a person’s control over their behaviour. In relation to diet, media images and mood can act as disinhibitors to prompt an individual to overeat.

disorganised offenders
Disorganised offenders are people who carry out unplanned crimes on random victims and leave a lot of evidence at the crime scene. They are typically socially and sexually incompetent.

displacement
Displacement is a defence mechanism that involves taking out anger towards one person on another (innocent) person.

dispositional explanation
The dispositional explanation proposes that behaviour is influenced by an individual’s personality.

distribution
The term distribution refers to the spread of scores in a dataset.

dopamine
Dopamine is an excitatory neurotransmitter with several important roles, including acting on the brain to produce feelings of pleasure, satisfaction, and motivation.

dopamine hypothesis
The dopamine hypothesis is a theory that both over-activity and under-activity of the neurotransmitter dopamine, in different brain regions, causes positive symptoms of schizophrenia.

drive reduction theory
Drive reduction theory identifies that we are driven to reduce the discomfort of hunger by feeding.

drug therapy
Drug therapy uses medications (drugs) to treat conditions of the body and brain.

duration
In relation to memory, duration refers to how long information can be stored.

dyadic phase
The dyadic phase is the second stage in Duck’s phase model of relationship breakdown, where the dissatisfied person in a relationship will speak to their partner about their concerns.

dysfunctional thought processing
In relation to schizophrenia, dysfunctional thought processing refers to the difficulties people with schizophrenia have in understanding and interpreting information due to faulty thought processes – in particular, metarepresentation dysfunction and central control dysfunction.

 

ecological validity
Ecological validity refers to the extent to which the findings of an investigation can be generalised to everyday life. For example, if the setting of an investigation is artificial (a laboratory experiment), the findings may differ in real-life contexts and so the investigation could have low ecological validity.

economy
The economy is the state of a country or region in terms of the production and consumption of goods and services.

Ego
According to Freud, the Ego is the part of a person’s personality that develops at age 2 and mediates between the Id and Superego.

egocentrism
Egocentrism is the inability to take on the perspective of others or see things from their viewpoint.

elaborative rehearsal
Elaborative rehearsal is the proposed process for transferring memories between short-term and long-term memory that involves making associations and connections between the new information and information already stored in long-term memory.

Electra complex
According to Freud’s psychoanalytic theory, the Electra complex occurs during the phallic stage (ages 3 to 6), when a girl transfers her sexual desires away from her mother and onto her father, becomes hostile towards her mother, and develops penis envy.

electroencephalogram (EEG)
An electroencephalogram (EEG) is a method to measure brain activity, where electrodes placed on the skull detect electrical charges from brain neurons to produce brainwave patterns.

emotional support
Emotional support is a form of social support that helps people cope with stress, by providing emotional rather than practical support (such as by taking the time to listen to a friend’s problems).

emotion-focused coping
Emotion-focused coping is a method for dealing with stress that involves tackling the anxiety associated with the stressor; the threat remains, but stress is reduced by finding ways to feel less anxious about it.

empirical research
Empirical research gathers data from direct observation and experience.

encoding specificity principle
The encoding specificity principle is the theory that people remember more if cues that are encoded at the same time as the initial learning are also present at recall.

endocrine system
The endocrine system is a network of glands that produce hormones to regulate bodily processes.

endogenous pacemaker
An endogenous pacemaker is an internal body clock made up of neurons that regulates biological rhythms such as the sleep/wake cycle.

enmeshment
Enmeshment is when family members are overly close, spend a lot of time together to the exclusion of others, and speak for each other assuming they know the other’s views.

entertainment-social
The first level of parasocial relationships on the Celebrity Attitude Scale (CAS) is entertainment-social, where a fan enjoys the entertainment value of a celebrity and is drawn to them, using the celebrity as a source of social interaction in real life.

environment of evolutionary adaptiveness (EEA)
The environment of evolutionary adaptiveness (EEA) was an ancestral environment with selection pressures to which a species has adapted.

environmental determinism
Environmental determinism is the idea that all behaviour is environmentally determined by external forces, such as our experiences and the processes of classical and operant conditioning.

environmental reductionism
Environmental (stimulus-response) reductionism is an approach that explains complex phenomena by breaking it down into stimulus-response links.

episodic buffer
In the working model of memory, the episodic buffer is the storage element of the central executive (CE), holding about four chunks of information. It integrates information from the CE, phonological loop, and visuo-spatial sketchpad.

episodic memory
Episodic memory is a type of long-term memory and a form of explicit memory (conscious retrieval), involving personal memories for ‘episodes’ (events) in people’s lives.

equilibration
In Piaget’s theory of cognitive development, equilibration describes the sense of inner balance created by successfully assimilating and accommodating new information into existing knowledge.

equity theory
Equity theory is an economic theory to determine the likelihood of partners continuing or ending their romantic relationship, where profitability is gained from an equitable (fair) exchange of rewards and costs.

esteem support
Esteem support is a form of social support that helps people cope with stress, involving helping somebody believe in themselves so they have more confidence to cope with their stressful situation.

ethical issue
In a psychological investigation, an ethical issue refers to a conflict between the requirements of the researcher to conduct meaningful research and the rights of the participants.

ethnocentrism
The term ethnocentrism refers to judging other cultures from the point of view of one’s own; it can lead to discrimination and cultural bias because people may view their own culture as superior.

ethology
Ethology is the scientific study of animal behaviour. It can be used to attempt to explain aggression in humans by studying aggression in animals.

event sampling
Event sampling is a sampling method. In sampling for behavioural categories, these are tallied each time they occur in a structured observation.

event-related potential (ERP)
An event-related potential (ERP) is an electrical impulse in the brain in response to a specific cognitive, motor, or sensory event. ERPs are measured with an EEG skull cap; all the neural responses are averaged, which cancels out everything but the ERP for the specific event.

evolutionary adaptation
An evolutionary adaptation is a trait that has evolved over many generations to aid a species’ survival.

excitatory
In relation to electrical impulses in neurons, the term excitatory means a positive response in the neuron and the generation or continuation of the impulse.

exogenous zeitgeber
An exogenous zeitgeber is environmental cue such as light, temperature, or the timing of meals, that influences the body’s biological rhythms by entraining the endogenous pacemaker.

experimental design
Experimental design refers to the way participants are allocated to conditions of the independent variable in an investigation. Types of experimental design include repeated measures, independent groups, and matched pairs.

expressed emotion
Expressed emotion refers to the way that the family and caregivers of a person with a mental health condition express their emotions and attitudes towards that person.

extraneous variable (EV)
An extraneous variable (EV) is an extra ‘nuisance’ variable in an experiment that may affect the dependent variable and interfere with determining cause and effect.

extrinsic investments
Extrinsic investments are resources that partners have made together within their relationship, such as possessions, children, mutual friends, and shared memories.

eyewitness testimony (EWT)
An eyewitness testimony (EWT) is an account of a crime given by a person who saw it happen (witness).

Eysenck’s theory of personality
Eysenck’s theory of personality proposes a link between criminality and personality, suggesting that criminals tend to be high in neuroticism, extraversion, and psychoticism.

face validity
Face validity is a simple test of validity of an investigation to assess if it measures what the researchers intended it to measure. It relies on a researcher’s subjective opinion (rather than statistical analysis).

failure to function adequately (FFA)
Failure to function adequately (FFA) is a way of defining abnormality that considers whether a person can cope with everyday tasks.

falsifiability
Falsifiability refers to being able to prove a hypothesis wrong.

family dysfunction
Family dysfunction is when there are unhealthy behaviours between family members on an ongoing basis, such as conflict, abuse, or neglect.

family systems theory (FST)
Family systems theory (FST) is the theory that a person develops anorexia nervosa due to growing up with family dysfunction.

family therapy
Family therapy is a type of therapy that aims to prevent an individual with schizophrenia from relapsing, where family members attend therapy sessions to learn how to best communicate with and support the person with schizophrenia.

field experiment
A field experiment is an investigation where the independent variable and dependent variable are controlled in a natural setting, such as a prison.

fight or flight response
The fight or flight response is an automatic (unconscious) physiological reaction to a stressful, frightening, or dangerous event. It is also called the sympathomedullary pathway (SAM).

filter theory
Filter theory is the idea that people are attracted to romantic partners based on a series of filters that narrows down the field of available people. The three filters are social demography, similarity in attitudes, and complementarity of needs.

fixed action pattern (FAP)
A fixed action pattern (FAP) is a sequence of instinctive behaviours that is triggered by an environmental cue. Each FAP is specific to a certain species.

flooding
Flooding is a desensitisation therapy to treat phobias, where the person is exposed to the most frightening aspect of fear on their hierarchy and practices relaxation techniques until they feel calm.

food preferences
The term food preferences refers to liking or preferring certain foods more than others.

free will
Free will is the idea that people are free to choose their own thoughts and actions, rather than being limited or directed by external forces.

frustration–aggression hypothesis
The frustration–aggression hypothesis proposes that frustration always leads to aggression, and aggression is always the result of frustration.

F-scale
The F-scale or ‘Potential for Fascism’ scale, was devised to measure the Authoritarian Personality. The higher the F-scale score, the more politically right-wing someone is.

functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)
Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) is a method to investigate brain activity, which scans the brain while the person carries out a task in order to measure changes in blood flow in areas of the brain associated with the task, producing a 3D activation map image.

GABA
Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) is neurotransmitter that is a natural form of anxiety relief and works by increasing the flow of chloride ions into the post-synaptic neuron, which has an inhibitory effect.

gating
In relationships, gating is the presence of barriers (‘gates’) to dating that stop people from approaching others to request a date, such as being shy, having a stammer, or not being ‘out’ about their sexuality.

gender
Gender is a person’s sense of maleness or femaleness, which is a psychosocial construct.

gender bias
Gender bias is where men and women are treated differently based on stereotypes, leading to misrepresentation or mistreatment of one gender (usually women).

gender constancy
Gender constancy is the third stage of Kohlberg’s theory, which happens around the age of 6. Children recognise that their own and other’s sex is constant across time and situations.

gender dysphoria
Gender dysphoria is the unease an individual feels due to a mismatch between their biological sex and gender identity.

gender identity
Gender identity is the first stage of Kohlberg’s theory, which happens between the ages of about 2 and 3. Children can identify themselves and others as a boy or a girl, And their gender identity is based on outward appearance.

gender schema theory (GST)
Gender schema theory (GST) is a cognitive–developmental approach that says a child’s understanding of gender increases with age, and that the child is active in that process as soon as gender identity has been established (at 2–3 years). At this point they begin to develop a gender schema (a mental representation of gender that is learned and develops through experience).

gender stability
Gender stability is the second stage of Kohlberg’s theory, which happens around the age of 4. Children realise that gender is usually consistent over time, but do not yet recognise that gender is consistent across situations.

general adaptation syndrome (GAS)
General adaptation syndrome (GAS) is a theory that animals/humans have the same (general) physiological responses to stressors that are adaptive, because it’s the best way for the body to cope with stress.

genetic heritability
Genetic heritability is a measure of how much the differences in people’s genes account for differences in their traits.

genotype
The term genotype refers to the genetic makeup of an individual, i.e. the specific versions of genes they have.

geographical profiling
Geographical profiling is a bottom-up approach to offender profiling that involves analysing the locations of crime scenes to make inferences about where the offender lives or has their criminal base.

ghrelin
Ghrelin is a ‘hunger’ hormone secreted by the stomach when it’s empty to prompt the person to eat.

glands
Glands are organs in the body that produce and release substances, for example endocrine glands secrete hormones to regulate bodily processes.

grave-dressing phase
The grave-dressing phase is the fourth and final stage in Duck’s phase model of relationship breakdown, where the relationship is ‘dead in the grave’ and each partner wants to ‘dress the grave’ to make it look more appealing, for example by telling their own version of the breakup that favours them.

hallucination
Hallucinations are distortions of sensory perception, where a person hears, smells, sees, or senses things that are not real.

hard determinism
Hard determinism is the idea that all behaviour has a cause and can be predicted, so free will does not exist.

hardiness
Hardiness is a style of personality that consists of three personality characteristics that protect against stress: feeling in control, being committed, and viewing potential threats as challenges to be overcome.

Hassles and Uplifts Scale (HSUP)
The Hassles and Uplifts Scale (HSUP) is a questionnaire that assesses a person’s attitudes towards daily hassles and uplifts in their life.

hello–goodbye effect
The hello-goodbye effect is when patients exaggerate their symptoms at the beginning (hello) to appear worthy of treatment, then exaggerate the success of their treatment at the end (goodbye) because they are grateful for the treatment and want to show how effective it has been.

hemispheric lateralisation (HL)
Hemispheric lateralisation (HL) is the theory that some mental processes are specialised to different hemispheres of the brain. For example, the left hemisphere is largely responsible for language, and the right for creativity.

heredity
Heredity is the process in which traits and characteristics are passed from one generation to the next through genes.

hierarchy of needs
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is a model organising the five types of needs that people need to progress through to achieve personal growth and fulfilment: physiological, safety, love/belonging, esteem, and self-actualisation.

hippocampus
The hippocampus is an area of the brain in the temporal lobe that plays an important role in forming new memories and the process of learning.

histogram
A histogram is a type of graph that shows continuous data. The x-axis has equal-sized intervals of a single category, and the y-axis shows the frequency.

holism
Holism is the idea that behaviour is best understood by analysing the person as a whole, rather than focusing on certain parts or causes of the behaviour.

hormones
Hormones are chemical messengers that are secreted by glands and move through the blood to target different organs or tissues in order to coordinate bodily functions.

hostile attribution bias
Hostile attribution bias is when a person’s thinking is distorted to assume the worst when interpreting the actions of others.

humanistic psychology
Humanistic psychology is an approach to psychology that assumes humans are essentially self-determining and have free will.

hypothalamic pituitary-adrenal system (HPA axis)
The hypothalamic pituitary-adrenal system (HPA axis) is the body’s response system to chronic stress, and causes cortisol to be released into the body to provide energy and increase the pain threshold.

hypothalamus
The hypothalamus is the area of the brain that controls bodily functions including heart rate, hunger and thirst, and the sleep-wake cycle.

hypothesis
A hypothesis is a precise testable statement made before an investigation begins about the relationship between the variables.

Id
According to Freud, the Id is the part of a person’s personality that is unconscious and present from birth. It demands instant gratification regardless of circumstances.

identification
In relation to conformity, identification is when a person changes to fit in with the majority both publicly and privately, but only while they are a member of a specific group. In social learning theory and Freud’s psychodynamic explanation of gender development, identification refers to when an individual feels a role model or their same-sex parent is similar to them.

idiographic approach
The idiographic approach is an approach to psychological research that focuses on the study of individuals, using qualitative methods to gain insights into their subjective way of viewing the world.

immunosuppression
Immunosuppression is the reduction of function in a person’s immune system, making it harder for the body to fight disease and infection.

imprinting
Imprinting is when newborn animals follow and bond with the first moving object they see (such as an adult animal or human).

impulsivity
Impulsivity is a personality trait characterised by a desire for immediate gratification, risk-taking, and failure to consider the consequences of behaviour.

incapacitation
Incapacitation is one of the aims of custodial sentencing. It involves removing a person from society with the aim of protecting the public, especially from violent and dangerous criminals.

independent groups design
Independent groups design is a type of experimental design where participants take part in one condition of the independent variable.

independent variable (IV)
The independent variable (IV) is the variable in an experiment that is changed or manipulated by the researcher.

indirect reinforcement
Indirect (or vicarious) reinforcement is learning by observing other people’s behaviour and how it is rewarded or punished.

inference
An inference is a logical conclusion that is formed from available information.

informational social influence (ISI)
Informational social influence (ISI) is an explanation for conformity that says people conform to be right.

infradian rhythm
Infradian rhythms are biological rhythms that take more than 24 hours to complete, such as the menstrual cycle.

inhibitory
In relation to electrical impulses in neurons, the term inhibitory means a negative response in the neuron – an impulse is not generated or continued.

innate releasing mechanisms (IRM)
Innate releasing mechanisms (IRM) are physiological processes, such as a network of neurons, that are activated by a specific environmental cue and trigger a fixed action pattern (specific sequence of behaviours).

insecure-avoidant
Insecure-avoidant is an attachment type identified by the Strange Situation, where children show low separation anxiety and low stranger anxiety.

insecure-resistant
Insecure-resistant is an attachment type identified by the Strange Situation, where children both want their mother and resist her. They show high separation anxiety and high stranger anxiety.

institutionalisation
Institutionalisation in the context of attachment occurs when children grow up in an institution such as an orphanage, hospital, or children’s home. Institutionalised children can suffer from a lack of emotional care, meaning they may experience difficulty in forming attachments.

instrumental support
Instrumental support is a problem-focused approach where somebody gives practical, tangible help, such as giving someone a lift to a hospital appointment.

intense-personal
The second level of parasocial relationship on the Celebrity Attitude Scale (CAS) is intense-personal, when a person invests more time and emotional energy into a celebrity, leading them to agree with statements such as ‘When something bad happens to my favourite celebrity, I feel like it happened to me.’

interactional synchrony
Interactional synchrony is when an infant and their caregiver mirror each other’s actions and emotions.

interactionist approach
The interactionist approach is an approach to psychology that believes nature and nurture are inextricably linked and work together to shape behaviour.

interference theory
Interference theory is an explanation for forgetting that suggests that forgetting occurs when one memory blocks or distorts another memory.

internal working model (IWM)
The internal working model (IWM) is the theory that a baby’s relationship with its primary caregiver acts a blueprint for all future relationships.

internalisation
Internalisation is a type of conformity where a person changes to fit in with the majority both publicly and privately on a permanent basis. In Freud’s psychodynamic explanation of gender development, identification refers to when a child adopts the attitudes and values of their same-sex parent, including their gender identity, so they behave in the same way.

inter-observer reliability
Inter-observer reliability measures the extent to which different observers in an experiment agree with each other and are observing and recording data in the same way.

intersexual selection
Intersexual selection is when one sex evolves preferences for the opposite sex, which determines the areas in which the opposite sex must compete.

interval data
Interval data is data that has precise intervals between measurements, such as heart rate in beats per minute.

interview
An interview is a set of questions asked face-to-face by a researcher.

intra-psychic phase
The intra-psychic phase is the first stage in Duck’s phase model of relationship breakdown, where a person will brood on the aspects of their relationship they are dissatisfied about and feel resentful towards their partner.

intrasexual selection
Intrasexual selection is when members of the same sex (usually men) compete to gain access to the opposite sex. The characteristics that led to their success will be passed on through their genes.

intrinsic investments
Intrinsic investments are resources a person directly brings to their relationship, such as money, possessions, energy, and self-disclosures.

introduction
An introduction is the section of a scientific report that states the aims and hypotheses of the investigation.

introspection
Wundt’s method of investigation into psychology, known as introspection, involved showing participants a stimulus and asking them to reflect on their inner experiences.

investigative psychology
Investigative psychology is a bottom-up approach to offender profiling that compares crime scene evidence to a database to create an offender profile.

investigator effects
Investigator effects are any conscious or unconscious behaviours of a researcher that could influence the outcome of a study. For example, a researcher may unconsciously give subtle cues to participants which act as confounding variables.

job-strain model
The job-strain model is the theory that ahigh workload and a low sense of control in the workplace causes stress and illness.

Klinefelter’s syndrome
Klinefelter’s syndrome is a genetic condition where an individual is born biologically male but with an extra X chromosome (XXY). Individuals with Klinefelter’s syndrome tend to look less masculine and often have problems with language development, reading, memory, and problem solving.

Kohlberg’s theory
Kohlberg’s theory is a cognitive–developmental theory that identifies three stages of gender development in children: gender identity, gender stability, and gender constancy.

laboratory experiment
A laboratory experiment is a type of experiment where the researcher manipulates the independent variable(s) in a well-controlled artificial setting, such as a university classroom or scientific laboratory.

leading questions
Leading questions are questions that are worded to suggest a particular answer.

learning theory
Learning theory is a behaviourist approach that says all behaviour is learned through either classical and/or operant conditioning.

legitimacy of authority
Legitimacy of authority is when a person obeys another due to their perceived social control in a situation, not due to their personal characteristics.

legitimate authority
A person with legitimate authority is believed to have rightful power and control over others, so others believe they should be obeyed.

leptin
Leptin is a ‘satiety’ hormone produced by adipose (fat) cells and causes a person to feel full and stop eating.

levels of measurement
In statistics, the levels of measurement are the different ways that quantitative data can be measured and categorised, including nominal, ordinal, and interval.

Life Change Unit (LCU)
A Life Change Unit (LCU) is a measurement of how stressful (or life-changing) an event is for a person. It is used as part of the Social Readjustment Rating Scale to measure how life events impact on health.

life changes
Life changes are events that cause a major change or disruption to a person’s life, such as getting married or the death of a friend.

limbic system
The limbic system is a part of the brain that helps coordinate emotional and behavioural responses, such as aggression. It includes the amygdala and hippocampus.

localisation of function
Localisation of function is a theory that different functions of the body are localised in specific areas of the brain, for example Broca’s area is responsible for speech production.

locus of control
Locus of control refers to the extent to which a person feels in control of the events that influence their life.

long-term memory (LTM)
Long-term memory (LTM) is a memory store that can hold unlimited amounts of information for long periods of time.

maintenance rehearsal
Maintenance rehearsal is the process of repeating information over and over to keep it in our short-term memory and move it to our long-term memory.

MAOA gene
The MAOA gene produces the enzyme monoamine oxidase A (MAOA), which regulates the metabolism of serotonin in the brain.

matched pairs design
Matched pairs design is a type of experimental design where participants are matched into pairs based on characteristics that may affect the dependent variable. Participants from each pair are randomly allocated to one condition of the independent variable.

matching hypothesis
The matching hypothesis is a theory that people don’t select the most physically attractive person when choosing a romantic partner, but instead choose someone who matches them in physical attractiveness ratings.

maternal care
Maternal care is the care a mother provides for her child.

maternal deprivation
Maternal deprivation is a condition experienced by children who are separated from, or not consistently well cared for by, their mother.

mean
The mean is a measure of central tendency that gives the average value of a dataset. It is calculated by adding all the scores in the dataset and dividing that number by the total number of scores.

measures of central tendency (MCT)
Measures of central tendency (MCT) are statistics that describe the most typical or ‘middle’ values in a dataset, including mean, median and mode.

measures of dispersion (MD)
Measures of dispersion (MD) are descriptive statistics that describe the spread of scores in a dataset, including range and standard deviation.

media
The media is any method of communicating to a large audience, such as TV, film, newspapers, and social media.

median
The median is a measure of central tendency that gives the middle value of a dataset. Scores are put in order from lowest to highest and the middle value is identified.

mediational process
Mediational processes are cognitive processes that take place in learning and determine whether new behaviour is acquired. They include attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation.

meta-analysis
A meta-analysis is a ‘study of studies’, where researchers analyse published studies (secondary data) that all have the same aim.

method
The method section of a scientific report describes what the researcher did in their investigation. It should be detailed enough to allow for precise replication.

minimalization
Minimalisation is a cognitive distortion where a criminal’s thinking diminishes the seriousness of their crime, so they perceive it as trivial.

minority influence
Minority influence is when an individual or small group persuades a majority to conform to their attitudes, values, and behaviours.

mirror neuron system
The mirror neuron system simulates the feelings of others within us, so we ‘feel’ their emotions.

mode
The mode is a measure of central tendency that gives the most frequently occurring score in the dataset.

modelling
Modelling is learning through observation and imitation of significant role models such as parents, friends, and media figures.

monotropic theory of attachment
Bowlby’s monotropic theory of attachment states that attachment is evolutionary and that babies attach to aid survival. It also emphasises the relationship between the caregiver (usually the mother) and the baby as key in the development of attachment.

monotropy
Bowlby’s idea of monotropy is that having one true attachment figure (usually the mother) is key in the development of attachment.

motor centre
The motor centre is an area of the brain that controls voluntary movement, located at the back of the frontal lobe.

motor neuron
Motor neurons are a type of neuron that transmit signals from the central nervous system to muscles (and glands) to effect movement.

multi-store model of memory (MSM)
The multi-store model of memory (MSM) is a linear model that explains how information is stored and processed into memories.

musturbatory thinking
Musturbatory thinking is a type of thinking identified by Ellis, where people have unrealistic beliefs about what they must have in order to be happy.

N value
In statistical testing, the N value is the number of scores in the dataset.

natural experiment
A natural experiment is a type of experiment that involves studying the effects of something that has happened already. The independent variable is naturally occurring and the dependent variable is controlled.

naturalistic observation
A naturalistic observation is non-experimental method of investigating behaviour where researchers watch and/or listen to participants without interference.

nature–nurture debate
The nature–nurture debate asks the question of whether behaviour is due to innate biological and genetic factors (nature) or due to the influence of the environment (nurture).

negative correlation
A negative correlation is a type of correlation (relationship between two co-variables) where as one co-variable increases, the other decreases.

negative reinforcement
A negative reinforcement is a process in operant conditioning where the removal of something unpleasant is experienced as a reward.

negative skew
A negative skew is when a dataset is distributed so most scores are in the upper end of the dataset.

negative symptom of SCZ
Negative symptoms of SCZ are symptoms of schizophrenia that cause a lack of ability or function in certain areas. They include speech poverty, avolition (apathy), anhedonia and affective flattening.

negative triad
Beck’s negative triad is a model created to help explain depression. It says that a person with depression has a negative view of themself, the world, and the future.

neophobia
neophobia is when people won’t eat new or unusual foods and it is common in children aged 2–6 years.

nervous system
The nervous system is a network of nerve cells in the body that it is used to carry messages to and from the brain and spinal cord to different parts of the body.

neural correlates
Neural correlates are brain functions and structures that correlate with experiences, such as SCZ and its symptoms.

neurochemistry
Neurochemistry is the study of chemicals such as neurotransmitters and their influence on the nervous system.

neuron
A neuron is a specialised cell whose function is to carry electrical impulses to and from the central nervous system.

neurotransmitter
A neurotransmitter is a chemical messenger in the body that allows neurons to communicate with each other and with other target cells.

nicotine
Nicotine is an addictive chemical that is a component of cigarettes and e-cigarettes (vapes).

nominal data
Nominal data is data that fits into separate categories, such as male, female, and non-binary.

nomothetic approach
The nomothetic approach is an approach to psychological research that focuses on the study of large groups of people. It uses quantitative methods to gather numerical data for use with statistical analysis.

non-directional hypothesis
A non-directional hypothesis is a statement that says there will be a difference between the conditions of the independent variable but does not predict the direction of the relationship between them.

non-participant observation
A non-participant observation is a non-experimental method of investigating behaviour where researchers watch and/or listen to participants from a distance.

normal distribution
A normal distribution means that what you are measuring has a normal spread of scores, with most scores occurring in the middle of the dataset.

normative social influence (NSI)
Normative social influence (NSI) is an explanation for conformity that says people conform to be liked.

obesity
Obesity is a chronic disease where individuals are significantly overweight.

object permanence
In Piaget’s theory of cognitive development, object permanence is the understanding that when objects are removed from sight, they still exist.

objectivity
In research, objectivity means recording data without bias.

observation
An observation is a non-experimental method of investigating behaviour where researchers watch and/or listen to participants.

obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)
Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) is a mental health condition characterised by recurring, unwanted thoughts (obsessions) and repetitive behaviours (compulsions) that are hard to control.

Oedipus complex
According to Freud’s psychoanalytic theory, an Oedipus complex develops during the phallic stage (ages 3 to 6),in which a boy falls in love with his mother and hates his father, as he is a rival, but recognises his power and fears he will castrate him.

oestrogen
Oestrogen is a female sex hormone. It is responsible for puberty in girls, controls the menstrual cycle, and has an important role in pregnancy.

offender profiling
Offender profiling is a method used in forensic psychology to identify the ‘type’ of person who committed a crime by analysing the crime scene and other evidence.

open questions
Open questions are questions asked in a questionnaire or interview that allow participants to answer freely and tend to produce qualitative data.

operant conditioning
Operant conditioning is a type of learning by reward, where if behaviour is rewarded, it is likely to be repeated.

operationalisation
Operationalisation is a method that takes a concept and transforms it into something that is objectively measurable.

opportunity sample
An opportunity sample is a sample (subset of a target population) that is chosen by the researcher by selecting anyone who was available at the time.

ordinal data
Ordinal data is ranked data. The measurements don’t have equal and objective intervals between them.

organised offender
Organised offenders are offenders who plan their crime with precision so that little or no evidence is left at the crime scene.

over-benefitted
In equity theory, an over-benefitted partner receives more rewards than they put into their romantic relationship, and may feel guilt, shame, and pity as a result.

overt observation
An overt observation is a non-experimental method of investigating behaviour where researchers watch and/or listen to participants. In an overt observation, participants know they are being watched.

oxytocin
Oxytocin is a hormone produced from the pituitary gland in both men and women. It promotes bonding, orgasm, and faster wound healing.

p value
In statistics, the p value is a number that indicates the probability that the results of a study are due to chance.

paradigm
A paradigm is a shared set of assumptions and methods of study within a scientific discipline.

paradigm shift
A paradigm shift is a scientific revolution that occurs when evidence is gathered that contradicts shared scientific assumptions.

parasocial relationship
A parasocial relationship is a one-sided relationship, usually with a celebrity.

partial reinforcement
Partial reinforcement is a process of conditioning where behaviour is rewarded only some of the time, rather than every time it occurs.

participant observation
Participant observation is a non-experimental method of investigating behaviour where researchers go undercover to join a group they wish to observe.

peer review
Peer review is when experts in the field scrutinise a research paper to ensure it is of high scientific quality.

perceptual-representation system (PRS)
The perceptual-representation system (PRS) is a memory system that allows us to unconsciously and automatically recognise stimuli that have been encountered previously.

perfectionism
Perfectionism is a personality trait where a person has excessively high standards and is very critical of themselves if these standards are not achieved.

peripheral nervous system (PNS)
The peripheral nervous system (PNS) is a network of nerves outside the brain and spinal cord, consisting of the autonomic nervous system and somatic nervous system.

person-centred counselling
Person-centred counselling is a type of talking therapy, developed by Rogers, to help people achieve congruence.

perspective-taking
Perspective-taking is the ability to see or understand something from the perspective or viewpoint of others.

phenotype
The term phenotype refers to how the genes (genotyoe) of an individual are expressed, i.e. their physiological or psychological traits or characteristics.

phobia
A phobia is an intense fear of a specific thing or situation.

phonological loop (PL)
According to the working model of memory, the phonological loop is the part of working memory that deals with auditory tasks. It is divided into the phonological store, which stores the words we hear, and the articulatory process, which repeats the words on a loop.

physical attractiveness
Physical attractiveness is the extent to which a person’s physical appearance is pleasing.

physical dependence
Physical dependence means that if a person stops taking a drug, they experience withdrawal (painful and/or unpleasant physiological symptoms).

physiological measure
Physiological measures are measurements of bodily functions such as heart rate, blood pressure, or the skin conductance response.

pilot study
A pilot study is a small-scale trial run of an investigation, which tests the design, materials, and procedures to highlight any problems (which can then be modified for the actual investigation).

piloting
Piloting uses small-scale trial runs (pilot studies) to improve the validity, reliability, and smooth running of the actual investigation.

plasticity
Plasticity is the ability of the brain to change its structure and function through experiences and new learning.

population
A population is the group of individuals a researcher wishes to investigate and apply their findings to.

positive correlation
A positive correlation is a type of correlation (relationship between two co-variables) where, as one co-variable increases, the other also increases.

positive reinforcement
Positive reinforcement is a process in operant conditioning where a desired behaviour is rewarded, so it is more likely to be repeated.

positive skew
A positive skew is when a dataset is distributed so most scores are in the lower end of the dataset.

positive symptom of SCZ
Positive symptoms of SCZ add experiences that are not consistent with reality, such as hallucinations and delusions.

post-event discussion
Post-event discussion is when eyewitnesses to a crime talk about it afterwards with other eyewitnesses.

post-mortem
A post-mortem is a medical examination of the body after death.

prefrontal cortex
The prefrontal cortex is a region of the brain in the frontal lobe that plays an important role in cognitive processes such as reasoning, decision-making, and speech.

primary data
Primary data is data collected first-hand by a researcher from the participants in their study.

proactive interference
Proactive interference is when an older memory blocks or distorts a newer one.

probability
Probability is how likely something is to happen.

problem-focused coping
Problem-focused coping is a method for dealing with stress that involves tackling the stressor directly in a practical and rational way.

procedural memory
Procedural memory is a type of long-term memory that is implicit (unconscious retrieval) often referred to as ‘muscle memory’, where the skill (or memory) becomes automatic once it is practised enough.

psychic determinism
Psychic determinism is the idea that all behaviour is determined by the unconscious, which is made up of innate drives and childhood experiences (internal and external forces).

psychoanalytic theory
Psychoanalytic theory is an approach to psychology, developed by Freud, based on the idea that most behaviours are determined by the unconscious.

psychodynamic approach
The psychodynamic approach is an approach to psychology, based on the idea that most behaviours are determined by the unconscious. It used case study methodology to analyse behaviour and create theories.

psychodynamic explanation
Psychodynamic explanations are explanations for behaviour that claim that that a person’s experiences in infancy will influence their development.

psychological dependence
Psychological dependence is when a person is consumed by thoughts about their addictive substance or behaviour and feels compelled to act on them, despite knowing it will cause them harm.

psychosexual stages
Psychosexual stages are different stages that children go through as they grow up in terms of their sexuality, according to Freud. The five stages are: oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital.

punishment reinforcement
Punishment reinforcement is a process in operant conditioning where an unwanted behaviour is punished, so it is less likely to be repeated.

qualitative data
Qualitative data is data that is expressed in words, such as the diary entry of a participant or the transcript of an interview.

quantitative data
Quantitative data is data that is measured in numbers or quantities, such as the duration of short-term memory or a participant’s score on a test.

quasi experiment
Quasi experiments are experiments where the independent variable is a pre-existing characteristic, such as age.

questionnaire
A questionnaire is a structured set of questions used to gather information from respondents.

random allocation
In sampling, random allocation is when participants in an experiment are randomly assigned to conditions of the independent variable.

random sample
A random sample is a sampling technique where all members of the target population have an equal chance of being selected.

randomisation
Randomisation means that a researcher uses chance in a study to control for extraneous or confounding variables and investigator effects. For example, randomly assigning participants to conditions of the independent variable.

range
Range is a measure of dispersion of a dataset that gives the difference in value between the lowest and highest values.

rational emotive behaviour therapy (REBT)
Rational emotive behaviour therapy (REBT) is a type of cognitive behavioural therapy developed by Ellis, based on the ABCDE model, which is used to treat depression.

recidivism
Recidivism is when a criminal reoffends.

reciprocity
In caregiver–infant interactions, reciprocity refers to the caregiver and infant responding to each other’s movements or sounds, like a conversation without words.

reductionism
Reductionism is the idea that behaviour is best understood by breaking it down into its constituent parts.

reference
The reference is the section of a scientific report that lists the sources (references) mentioned in the report (such as other research papers). Each reference includes details such as title, author, and publisher.

rehabilitation
Rehabilitation is one of the aims of custodial sentencing. It seeks to reform prisoners through therapy or opportunities to develop skills and training, so they are better able to function upon release.

relay neuron
Relay neurons (interneurons) are a type of neuron only found within the brain and spinal cord. They connect sensory neurons to motor neurons to allow them to communicate.

reliability
Reliability is a measure of the consistency of the findings from an investigation. If the results are the same (consistent) when the investigation is repeated, they are reliable.

remission
A person is in remission when they are recovering from a physiological or psychological health condition and no longer experiencing symptoms.

repeated measures design
Repeated measures design is a type of experimental design where participants take part in all conditions of the independent variable.

replicability
Replicability means repeating an investigation in different contexts and circumstances will still achieve the same results.

repression
In relation to Freud’s psychodynamic approach, repression refers to forcing a traumatic memory into the unconscious, so it can’t be remembered.

restorative justice
Restorative justice is an approach to dealing with criminal behaviour which seeks to achieve justice by repairing the harm done by the crime. It focuses on atonement and rehabilitation rather than punishment.

restraint theory
Restraint theory is a theory to explain obesity. It says that dieting results in a person becoming preoccupied with food, leading to overeating.

results
The results section of a scientific report gives details about key findings.

Sally–Anne test
The Sally-Anne test is a false-belief task that uses a story of two dolls, where Sally puts a marble in her basket, but Anne moves it to a box while Sally is away. Children are asked where Sally will search for the marble.

sample
A small group of individuals drawn from the target population. There are different sampling techniques, all designed to ensure that the sample is representative of the population.

scaffolding
In Vygotsky’s theory of cognitive development, scaffolding describes how children are assisted by experts to cross the zone of proximal development. The expert creates a temporary support (scaffold) that is gradually withdrawn as the child’s cognitive ability increases.

scattergram
A scattergram is a type of graph used to show the relationship between two co-variables from a correlational investigation. Each axis is labelled with one of the co-variables, and one scatter point is plotted for each pair of data.

schema
A schema is a mental structure that represents a group of related concepts. For example a schema for a cat might contain the concepts: fluffy, four legs, tail, whiskers.

schizophrenia (SCZ)
A mental health disorder characterised by both positive symptoms like delusions, hallucinations, and disorganised speech, as well as negative symptoms such as speech poverty and avolition.

secondary data
Secondary data is data that has already been generated for other purposes. It may have been collected by the same researcher in a previous study, or by another organisation.

secure attachment
Secure attachment is an attachment type identified by the Strange Situation, where children can use their mother as a secure base to explore their surroundings. They show moderate separation anxiety and moderate stranger anxiety.

self-actualisation
Self-actualisation is the final stage in Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, when a person reaches their full potential.

self-disclosure
Self-disclosure is when a person reveals personal information to another. Gradual and reciprocal self-disclosure is believed to strengthen relationships.

self-report scale
A self-report scale is a research tool that relies on participants providing information about themselves without interference from a researcher.

self-report technique
Self-report techniques are non-experimental methods of investigation where researchers ask participants about their experiences, thoughts, and feelings on a given topic.

self-schema
A self-schema is the packet of knowledge a person has about themselves, that guides their perception of the world.

self-worth
Self-worth describes how much a person values and respects themselves, and believes they are worthy of love.

semantic memory
Semantic memory is a type of long-term memory and a form of explicit memory (conscious retrieval) involving knowledge about the world and the meanings of words.

sensory neuron
A sensory neuron is a type of neuron that carries nerve impulses from sensory receptors to the spinal cord and brain in order to interpret sensory information.

sensory register
In the multi-store model of memory, the sensory register is the memory store that collects and briefly processes information from the senses.

separation anxiety
Separation anxiety is when a child is distressed by being apart from their primary attachment figure.

serotonin
Serotonin is a neurotransmitter that has a widespread inhibitory effect on the brain and is a natural mood stabiliser. Serotonin also plays an important role in bodily functions such as sleep, digestion, and wound healing.

SERT gene
The SERT gene is a gene involved in regulating mood. A variation of the SERT gene results in lower levels of serotonin, which is linked to obsessive-compulsive disorder.

sex
In terms of gender, sex refers to being genetically male (XY) or female (XX).

sex-role stereotype
Sex-role stereotypes are a set of societal expectations about typical and acceptable behaviour for males and females, such as ‘boys don’t cry’ and ‘girls don’t fight’.

sexual selection
The theory of sexual selection is that people are biologically preprogrammed to find behaviours and characteristics in the opposite sex that increase their chance of successfully mating and bringing up children to be sexually attractive adults.

short-term memory (STM)
Short-term memory (STM) is a memory store that can hold a small amount of information and keep it readily available for a short period of time.

sign test
The sign test is a statistical test used to see if the differences in a dataset are significant. It is used when the data is nominal, and it’s a repeated measures or matched pairs experimental design.

significance level
In statistical testing, the significance level measures how likely the results of an investigation are due to chance (probability, or p value). The accepted significance level in psychology is p < 0.05, or a 5% or lower probability that the results are due to chance alone.

similarity in attitudes
The second filter in filter theory is similarity in attitudes, which describes the importance of having similar attitudes and values in forming a stable relationship.

situational explanation
A situational explanation for behaviour is the idea that a person’s behaviour can be explained by the situation they are in (their current environment or circumstances).

skewed distribution
A skewed distribution describes when a dataset is not distributed or spread equally around the mean.

skin conductance response
The skin conductance response is a measurement of the electrical conductivity of the skin. The more sweat on the surface of the skin the greater the conductance, so this can be used to measure stress.

sleep/wake cycle
Our sleep/wake cycle is a circadian rhythm driven by endogenous pacemakers that determines how alert or sleepy a person is during a 24-hour cycle.

SNRIs
SNRIs are a type of anti-depressant drug that blocks the reuptake of the neurotransmitters serotonin and noradrenaline.

social change
Social change is when society changes the ways it thinks about specific issues, such as women’s rights or sexuality.

social cognition
Social cognition refers to the way people process and apply their thoughts in social situations with other people.

social demography
Social demography is the first filter in filter theory and refers to variables that predict the likelihood of partners meeting in the first place, such as age, location, and religion. Filter theory states that a person is more likely to meet and enter a relationship with someone who they share several social demographics with.

social exchange theory
Social exchange theory is a theory that aims to predict whether partners will stay in a relationship. For a relationship to be maintained the benefits of being in the relationship must outweigh the costs.

social influence
Social influence is the process by which a person changes their beliefs or behaviours due to the influence of other people.

social learning theory (SLT)
Social learning theory (SLT) is an approach to psychology that says all behaviour is learned in a social context through direct and indirect reinforcement, and observation and modelling.

social norms intervention
Social norms interventions are messages that provide information about what most people are doing, which influence others to fit in with the behaviour of the majority.

social penetration theory
Social penetration theory is the theory that relationships deepen through self-disclosure: partners are able to penetrate more deeply into each other’s lives and thoughts through the gradual and reciprocal exchange of information about themselves.

social phase
The social phase is the third stage in Duck’s phase model of relationship breakdown, where partners tell their social network about the problems in their relationship and as the issues become public, breakdown is inevitable.

Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS)
The Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS) is a self-report questionnaire that measures how much stress a person has experienced (based on life events) to indicate how this might impact on their health.

social releaser
Social releasers are innate biological mechanisms that have evolved to elicit caregiving, such as babies having a cute button nose.

social role
An individual’s social role is the role that they are expected to play in a given context, such as ‘parent’, ‘friend’, or ‘teacher’.

social support
Social support is the provision of practical or emotional support by an individual’s network.

socially sensitive research
Socially sensitive research is research that might have consequences for the groups being investigated and represented. The groups are usually minorities who are vulnerable to discrimination.

soft determinism
Soft determinism is the idea that while most behaviour can be predicted, there is also an element of free will in making conscious decisions.

somatic nervous system (SNS)
The somatic nervous system is a division of the peripheral nervous system that controls voluntary muscle movement, relaying motor (movement) commands to muscles.

somatosensory centre
The somatosensory centre is an area of the brain that processes sensory information such as touch, pain, and heat, located at the front of the parietal lobe.

speech poverty
Speech poverty (alogia) is a decrease in speech fluency.

spiral model
The spiral model is a theory to explain why dieting fails. It says that dieting increases the chance of overeating, which causes the person to spiral into a pattern of trying to ‘diet harder’.

split-brain research
Split-brain research describes Sperry’s research on patients whose corpus callosum was cut as a treatment for epilepsy, meaning the right and left hemispheres of their brains were ‘split’ and couldn’t communicate.

SSRIs
Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) are a type of anti-depressant drug that works by increasing the time that serotonin spends in the synapse, which increases its effect.

stages of attachment
Stages of attachment are the different stages that children go through as they develop in terms of how they attach to others. Schaffer identified four stages of attachment: asocial, indiscriminate, specific, and multiple.

stages of intellectual development
Piaget believed that there were four stages of intellectual development, where more sophisticated ways of thinking are demonstrated in each new stage. The four stages are the sensory motor stage (0–2 years), the pre-operational stage (2–7 years), the concrete operational stage (7–11 years) and the formal operational stage (11+ years).

standard deviation (SD)
The standard deviation (SD) is a measure of dispersion that describes the spread of scores around the mean. The higher the SD, the more varied the scores in the dataset.

standardisation
In experiments, standardisation means that participants experience identical procedures and instructions.

state-dependent forgetting
State-dependent forgetting means that information recall is reduced when the physical or emotional state a person is in, is different to the state they were in when it was learned.

statistical infrequency
In psychopathology, statistical infrequency is a way of defining ‘abnormality’ that considers how rare behaviours are.

statistical testing
Statistical testing uses mathematical techniques to analyse data to see if the differences or associations in a dataset are significant.

stimulus-response link
Stimulus-response links connect a specific stimulus with a specific response.

Strange Situation
The Strange Situation was a controlled observation to determine the attachment type of infants, devised in the 1970s by Mary Ainsworth.

stranger anxiety
Stranger anxiety is the distress shown by a child when they are with unfamiliar people.

stratified sample
A stratified sample is a sampling technique that identifies subgroups (strata) within a target population and proportionally represents the subgroups in the sample.

stress inoculation therapy (SIT)
Stress inoculation therapy (SIT) is a type of cognitive behavioural therapy that aims to prevent stress by teaching a person how to think differently about the stressors affecting them.

structuralism
Structuralism describes Wundt’s approach to psychology, which involved scientifically studying the structure of the human mind by breaking down perceptions and sensations into their constituent parts.

structured interview
A structured interview is an interview with pre-determined questions asked by a researcher in a fixed order.

structured observation
A structured observation is an observation that breaks down the overall behaviour to be observed into behavioural categories.

Superego
According to Freud, the superego is the part of a person’s personality that develops during the phallic stage of development.

sympathomedullary pathway (SAM)
The sympathomedullary pathway (SAM) is the body’s system for dealing with acute stress, also known as the fight or flight response.

synaptic transmission
Synaptic transmission is the process by which a neuron communicates with another neuron. It involves the release of neurotransmitters into the synaptic gap between the two neurons.

synchronic consistency
Synchronic consistency is a process affecting minority influence, in which the minority have the same message between themselves.

systematic desensitisation (SD)
Systematic desensitisation (SD) is a behavioural therapy used to treat phobias. It uses counter-conditioning to pair the (learned) phobic stimulus with a new conditioned stimulus of relaxation techniques.

systematic sample
A systematic sample is a random sampling technique where every nth person is selected, for example every 10th person from the list.

table
In statistics, a table is a structured grid used to organise data in columns and rows.

taste aversion
Taste aversion is an avoidance reaction to the sight or smell of food that can make us ill. This aided survival as our ancestors avoided dangerous foods.

temporal validity
Temporal validity refers to whether the findings of an investigation can be generalised to different time periods.

tend and befriend response
The tend and befriend response is a response to stress or threat shown by women, which prompts them to protect and care for their children (‘tend’) and to form alliances with other women (‘befriend’).

testosterone
Testosterone is a male sex hormone, which develops external genitalia in prenatal males, is responsible for puberty in boys, and has behavioural effects (such as heightening aggression).

test-retest reliability
Test-retest reliability is a method for testing the reliability (consistency) of a research tool, such as a questionnaire or IQ test. It involves the same person completing the same research tool some time apart.

thematic analysis
A thematic analysis is a form of content analysis that produces qualitative data, as it identifies underlying themes from the coded data. For example, in the content analysis of a music video, antisocial themes such as ‘positive portrayal of violence’ and ‘sexist attitudes towards women’ may emerge.

theoretical model
A theoretical model is a framework used to represent a psychological theory. It is based on research and is often pictorial, using boxes and arrows to indicate the stages of a mental process.

theory construction
Theory construction involves generating a theory (an idea to explain facts or events) and testing it repeatedly to refine it.

theory of mind (ToM)
Theory of mind (ToM) is an individual’s understanding that other people have their own thoughts and feelings, which can be understood through facial expressions.

theory of planned behaviour (TPB)
The theory of planned behaviour (TPB) is a theory of behaviour change, based on the assumption that intention directly leads to behaviour. For example, in the context of addiction, the likelihood of someone stopping their addiction can be predicted by assessing their intention to stop.

time sampling
Time sampling involves tallying behavioural categories at time intervals, such as every 5 minutes, in a structured observation.

token economy
A token economy is a type of therapy that uses operant conditioning, where people are rewarded when they engage in positive behaviours to reinforce the behaviours.

tolerance
In addiction, tolerance describes how long-term use of a drug causes a decrease in its physiological response. This means the individual must take increasing amounts to acquire the same effect.

top-down approach
The top-down approach is an approach to creating an offender profile where profilers match data about the crime and offender to pre-existing templates created by the FBI.

transdiagnostic model
The transdiagnostic model is model suggesting that the same cognitive distortions underlie all eating disorders. These cognitive distortions include a person overestimating their weight, negative misperceptions of appearance, and an emphasis on self-control.

Turner’s syndrome
Turner’s syndrome is a genetic condition where an infant is born biologically female but with a missing X chromosome (X0). Individuals with Turner’s syndrome do not have periods and are infertile. They typically have a higher-than-average reading ability, but poorer performance in spatial ability, visual memory, and maths tasks.

two-process model
The two-process model is a model that says phobias are initiated through classical conditioning and maintained through operant conditioning.

Type A personality
An individual with a Type A personality is generally competitive, ambitious, impatient, and hostile.

Type B personality
An individual with a Type B personality is generally relaxed, patient, tolerant, and laid back.

Type C personality
An individual with a Type C personality generally strives to avoid conflict and suppresses their emotions.

Type I error
A Type I error describes when a researcher has accepted the alternative hypothesis when the null hypothesis is true.

Type II error
A Type II error describes when a researcher has accepted the null hypothesis when the alternative hypothesis is true.

typical antipsychotic
Typical antipsychotics are drugs used to treat schizophrenia, such as chlorpromazine. They block the action of the neurotransmitter dopamine and are effective in treating the positive symptoms of schizophrenia, though can have problematic side effects.

 

ultradian rhythm
Ultradian rhythms are biological rhythms that take less than 24 hours to complete, such as the 90-minute sleep cycle.

unanimity
Unanimity describes when a group of people all agree with each other.

unconscious
In psychoanalysis, the unconscious is a part of the mind contains basic instincts, drives, and traumatic (repressed) memories.

under-benefitted
In equity theory, an under-benefitted partner experiences more costs to being in a romantic relationship than rewards, and may feel sadness, humiliation, and anger as a result.

universality
Universality refers to a theory that applies to everyone regardless of gender or culture.

unstructured interview
An unstructured interview is a face-to-face interview style, with no set questions so interview uniquely develops according to the participant’s responses.

unstructured observation
Unstructured observation is a non-experimental method of investigating behaviour where researchers record everything they see or hear and produce qualitative data.

validity
Validity is the extent to which an experiment, observation, questionnaire, or similar tool measures what it claims to measure.

variable
A variable is anything that can be changed and measured. A researcher typically changes the independent variable to measure the effect (if any) on the dependent variable.

variable reinforcement
In gambling, variable reinforcement is a type of partial reinforcement where only a proportion of gambles are rewarded with a win, and the schedule is completely unpredictable.

vicarious reinforcement
Vicarious (or indirect) reinforcement is learning by observing other people’s behaviour and how it is rewarded or punished.

violation of expectation (VOE) research
Violation of expectation (VOE) research describes research undertaken by Baillargeon to investigate how young infants respond to unexpected events.

visual centre
The visual centre is an area of the brain that processes visual information such as colour, shape, and movement, located in the occipital lobe.

visuo-spatial sketchpad (VSS)
According to the working model of memory, the visuo-spatial sketchpad (VSS) is a part of working memory that helps with spatial tasks or picturing visual information. It is divided into the visual cache, which is a store for visual data, and the inner scribe, which records the arrangement of objects in the visual field.

volunteer sample
A volunteer sample is a sample (subset of a target population) that consists of people who have volunteered to take part in the experiment, for example by replying to an advert.

weapon focus effect
The weapon focus effect describes how eyewitnesses to a crime focus their attention on the criminal’s weapon. This reduces their ability to focus on the surrounding details and reduces the accuracy of their eyewitness testimony.

Wernicke’s area
Wernicke’s area is an area of the brain responsible for speech comprehension, located in the temporal lobe.

withdrawal syndrome
Withdrawal syndrome describes how when a person stops taking a drug they are physically dependent on they experience a collection of aversive symptoms. These effects are usually the opposite of the ones created by the drug.

working model of memory (WMM)
The working model of memory (WMM) is a model that describes how memory works. It suggests that short-term memory is an active processor that allows people to complete tasks in the present.

workplace stress
Workplace stress is stress caused by work, such as having demanding deadlines or difficult colleagues.

Yerkes–Dodson law
The Yerkes-Dodson law explains that anxiety has a positive effect on the accuracy of eyewitnesses up to a point, but when people become too anxious, their accuracy decreases.

zero correlation
Zero correlation is a type of correlation (relationship between two co-variables) where there is no relationship between the co-variables.

zone of proximal development (ZPD)
In Vygotsky’s theory of cognitive development, the zone of proximal development (ZPD) is the region between what a child can already understand and what they would be unable to understand, even with support.