Edexcel Chapter A Level Geography | answers

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Oxford Revise | Edexcel A Level Geography | Answers

Chapter 1

All exemplar answers given are likely to be in the top mark band.

Questions 1–11 are point-marked. Allow 1 mark per valid point with extra marks for development.

AO3 = 4
1. 3502 (1); accept 3000–4000
  VEI 2 (1)
2. The plot should lie exactly on the intercept line (1) between VEI 4 and estimated casualties of 30,000 (1).
AO3 = 4
1. 11.17 (2)
2. $1952 (1)
3. $404.87 (1)
  (1985–2015 = 30 years, $12,146 ÷ 30 years)
AO3 = 4
1. 205.5 (1); accept 206
2. Award 1 mark for the calculation of r_s without showing working.
  r_s= 1 − (1233 ÷ 990) = 1 − 1.245 (1)
  r_s= −0.245 (1)
  accept r_s= 1 − (1236 ÷ 990) = 1 − 1.248 = −0.248, if ƩD₂ calculated to 206
3. Accept (1)
AO3 = 4
1. 7.7 (1); accept 7.68
2. 7.6 (1)
3. Award 1 mark for the two quartiles:
  Upper quartile Q1 = (8.3 + 7.9) ÷ 2 = 8.1
  Lower quartile Q3 = (7.1 + 7.0) ÷ 2= 7.05
  Interquartile range = 1.05 (1); accept 1.0

AO3 = 4

Award 2 marks for correctly completed table.

	O	E	(O – E)	(O – E)²	(O – E)²/E
Depth	Number of earthquakes over magnitude 5	Number of earthquakes over magnitude 5
0–10 km	7	11	4	16	3.2
11–20 km	23	11	12	144	13.1
21–30 km	14	11	3	9	0.8
31–40 km	5	11	–6	36	3.3
41–50 km	6	11	–5	25	2.3
					$\Sigma =$

Note: (O – E) for the 41–50 km category must be negative.

Note: (O – E)² for the 31–40 km category must be positive.

22.7 (1)
Reject (1)

AO3 = 4
1. 248,590 (1)
2. 200,000 (1); accept correct working
3. Award 1 mark for the two quartiles:
  First quartile Q1 = 98,862
  
  Third quartile Q3 = 279,384.5
  
  Interquartile range = 180,522.5 (1); accept 180,523
  
  (Allow 1 mark for the correct use of the mathematical formula for interquartile range, but if rounding is incorrect, limit to 1 mark.)
AO3 = 4
1. Award 1 mark for the calculation of r_s without showing working.
  r_s= 1 − (579 ÷ 9900) = 1 – 0.58 (1)
  r_s= −0.42 (1)
  accept r_s= 0.413 if ƩD₂ calculated to 97
2. Accept (2)
Questions 8-15 are level-marked.

AO1 = 3 / AO2 = 9

Level	Marks	Description
	0	No rewardable material.
1	1–4	Demonstrates isolated elements of geographical knowledge and understanding, some of which may be inaccurate or irrelevant. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas, making limited logical connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce an interpretation with limited relevance and/or support. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to make unsupported or generic judgements about the significance of few factors, leading to an argument that is unbalanced or lacks coherence. (AO2)
2	5–8	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is mostly relevant and may include some inaccuracies. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas logically, making some relevant connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce a partial but coherent interpretation that is mostly relevant and supported by evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to make judgements about the significance of some factors, to produce an argument that may be unbalanced or partially coherent. (AO2)
3	9–12	Demonstrates accurate and relevant geographical knowledge and understanding throughout. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas logically, making relevant connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce a full and coherent interpretation that is relevant and supported by evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to make supported judgements about the significance of factors throughout the response, leading to a balanced and coherent argument. (AO2)

Relevant content may include:

AO1

Impacts can be measured in terms of social, economic, and environmental costs.
Vulnerability is the degree to which people are exposed to risks; resilience is the degree to which they can cope following a hazard impact.
Plate boundaries are where most tectonic events occur, and multiple hazard zones may experience a range of interacting hazards.
Strategies to modify the impact of tectonic hazards include land-use zoning, hazard-resistant building design and engineering defences, as well as diversion of lava flows.
Strategies to modify vulnerability and resilience include high-tech monitoring, prediction, education, community preparedness, and adaptation.

Strategies to modify loss include emergency aid, short- and longer-term aid, insurance, and the actions of affected communities themselves.

A02

Physical location is key and determines the type, nature, and extent of tectonic hazards. Earthquakes can differ depending on the type of boundary and depth. Volcanic explosivity can vary depending upon magma type, with destructive boundaries seeing acidic magma and high explosivity eruptions on the VEI scale.
A multiple-hazard zone may experience several hazards which interact to make an individual hazard worse. Therefore, this affects significance.
The extent to which a hazard poses risks can be assessed using a hazard profile for different events and type of hazard.
Vulnerability is greatly increased by low development levels and high inequality. Risks increase with high poverty rates, low education standards, unemployment, high population growth, and urbanisation, leading to huge, densely populated informal settlements without infrastructure.
Vulnerability is also increased by poor governance. Potentially corrupt countries governed by dictators ignore the need for building controls and regulations, which leads to dangerous and poor informal settlements becoming established.
These also affect a country’s ability to modify the event, vulnerability and resilience, and the losses, all of which will affect the impacts from tectonic hazards.
The disaster risk equation and PAR model can also be used to assess risk between different locations in accordance with human and physical factors combined.

Example answer: Impacts can vary for numerous reasons, including (and most importantly of all) the degree to which a location is physically exposed to a hazard. Some locations are on plate margins and experience earthquakes, tsunamis, and volcanic eruptions. For example, the coast of Japan is particularly exposed to tsunamis. In 2011, the Sendai region suffered a devastating tsunami, in part because of its physical location. Also, the type of magma in a volcanic eruption determines the level of the hazard and therefore the impacts. Explosive magma, leading to a high VEI magnitude event, can devastate large areas and have huge impacts. For example, in Montserrat in 1995, two thirds of homes, including most of the capital city, Plymouth, were destroyed. This resulted in high levels of emigration.

However, the PAR model suggests that disasters (high impacts) are also affected by the progression of vulnerability, and so a disaster must contain a human element. Poor governance is the most significant factor to increase vulnerability and decrease resilience, as it affects all other factors. A poorly governed country greatly increases vulnerability through a lack of planning, regulations, and preparedness for disasters. In Haiti in 2010, for example, an earthquake resulted in 220,000 deaths, and the long-term social impacts affected 3.5 million people. This was due to poor governance and corruption, leading to widespread poverty, a lack of even basic infrastructure and services like water supply, and the building of informal housing which easily collapsed as there were no regulations to govern structural integrity. In contrast, vulnerability was relatively low in Japan leading up to the Tohoku tsunami in 2011. Here, good governance meant clear disaster planning, including warning sirens and phone alerts, marked evacuation routes, and strict building regulations ensuring homes were built to withstand tsunamis and earthquakes.

Poor governance also affects inequality directly. Unequal access to housing, education, health, and jobs increases vulnerability and reduces resilience after a disaster. In Haiti, for example, low education standards meant only 35% of residents could read. Many people did not understand how to deal with the impact of the earthquake in 2010.

The use of hazard-resistant design reduces impacts in more developed countries. Designs include cross-bracing and pendulum weights in high-rise blocks, shock-absorbing foundations to withstand seismic waves, and reinforced roofs for volcanic ashfalls. Physical defences can also be built, such as sea walls to withstand tsunamis. Walls like this in Japan are up to 15 m high. Modification of vulnerability is also conducted in richer countries. For example, the use of high-tech monitoring and forecasting of volcanoes in Iceland, together with full-scale live evacuation practise (e.g. 2006), meant the impacts from the Eyjafjallajökull eruption in 2010 were low.

In conclusion, impacts vary due to many reasons, but especially physical location. This is compounded by human factors, most notably poor governance, which goes on to affect the degree of inequality and development, and therefore mitigation against natural hazards.

AO1 = 3 / AO2 = 9

Level	Marks	Description
	0	No rewardable material.
1	1–4	Demonstrates isolated elements of geographical knowledge and understanding, some of which may be inaccurate or irrelevant. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas, making limited logical connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce an interpretation with limited relevance and/or support. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to make unsupported or generic judgements about the significance of few factors, leading to an argument that is unbalanced or lacks coherence. (AO2)
2	5–8	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is mostly relevant and may include some inaccuracies. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas logically, making some relevant connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce a partial but coherent interpretation that is mostly relevant and supported by evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to make judgements about the significance of some factors, to produce an argument that may be unbalanced or partially coherent. (AO2)
3	9–12	Demonstrates accurate and relevant geographical knowledge and understanding throughout. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas logically, making relevant connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce a full and coherent interpretation that is relevant and supported by evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to make supported judgements about the significance of factors throughout the response, leading to a balanced and coherent argument. (AO2)

Relevant content may include:

AO1

The global distribution and causes of volcanic eruptions.

The factors affecting the magnitude and type of volcanic eruption.
The hazards connected to an eruption: lava flows, pyroclastic flows, ash falls, gas eruptions, and secondary hazards (lahars, jökulhlaups).
Hazard profile factors to include magnitude, speed of onset and areal extent, duration, frequency, spatial predictability.
Factors relating to vulnerability and resilience to include hazard-resistant design and the modification spectrum.

AO2

Physical location is key and determines the type, nature, and extent of tectonic hazards. For example, volcanic explosivity can vary depending on the magma type, with destructive boundaries seeing acidic magma and high explosivity eruptions on the VEI scale.
Destructive boundaries generate larger magnitude volcanic eruptions than constructive boundaries or hotspots.
The context of the plate boundary is also important, relating to plate types and specific magma, as well as the triggers for each individual eruption (e.g. Montserrat).
The types of hazard emitted can determine the impacts, with pyroclastic flows increasing the hazard. Also, the nature of interacting hazards which may create secondary hazards, such as lahars and jökulhlaups.
Human factors increase or decrease the impact through hazard management, including strategies to modify the impact of tectonic hazards (land-use zoning, hazard-resistant building design and engineering defences, as well as diversion of lava flows), strategies to modify vulnerability and resilience (high-tech monitoring, prediction, education, community preparedness and adaptation), and strategies to modify loss (emergency aid, short- and longer-term aid, insurance, and the actions of affected communities themselves).
Other factors relating to vulnerability may include development levels and high inequality, with increased risks due to high poverty rates, unemployment, high population growth, and urbanisation, leading to huge, densely populated informal settlements, without infrastructure.
Vulnerability is also increased by poor governance, possibly corrupt countries led by dictators, leading to no building controls or lax regulations, which in turn leads to dangerous and poor informal settlements becoming established.

AO1 = 3 / AO2 = 9

Level	Marks	Description
	0	No rewardable material.
1	1–4	Demonstrates isolated elements of geographical knowledge and understanding, some of which may be inaccurate or irrelevant. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas, making limited logical connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce an interpretation with limited relevance and/or support. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to make unsupported or generic judgements about the significance of few factors, leading to an argument that is unbalanced or lacks coherence. (AO2)
2	5–8	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is mostly relevant and may include some inaccuracies. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas logically, making some relevant connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce a partial but coherent interpretation that is mostly relevant and supported by evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to make judgements about the significance of some factors, to produce an argument that may be unbalanced or partially coherent. (AO2)
3	9–12	Demonstrates accurate and relevant geographical knowledge and understanding throughout. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas logically, making relevant connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce a full and coherent interpretation that is relevant and supported by evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to make supported judgements about the significance of factors throughout the response, leading to a balanced and coherent argument. (AO2)

Relevant content may include:

AO1

Prediction and forecasting are different things. Both are related to predication.
Prediction and forecasting can be attempted for all hazards, with different levels of accuracy depending on the type of hazard and development level of the country.
Impacts can be measured in terms of social, economic, and environmental costs.
Strategies to modify the impact of tectonic hazards include land-use zoning, hazard-resistant building design and engineering defences, as well as diversion of lava flows.
Strategies to modify vulnerability and resilience include high-tech monitoring, prediction, education, and community preparedness and adaptation.
Strategies to modify loss include emergency aid, short- and longer-term aid, insurance, and the actions of affected communities themselves.

A02

Some hazards are easier than others to predict (forecast spatially and temporally) with different results. Earthquakes are easier to forecast spatially but not temporally, which makes prediction impossible. However, scientists have used recurrence intervals on stress points along plate boundaries (e.g. the North Anatolian Fault line) to forecast events.
Volcanic eruptions are easier in both aspects, forecasting spatially and temporally, and can be monitored in a variety of ways to indicate stages of an eruption.
Tsunamis relate to earthquakes. Time travel maps and models are used to indicate impact locations, which then allow communities to be warned. However, the Tohoku earthquake and tsunami in Japan in 2011 overwhelmed defences, resulting in huge impacts. This hints at the magnitude of the hazard still being the deciding factor over prediction when it comes to impacts.
Human factors also increase or decrease the impact through hazard management, including strategies to modify the impact of tectonic hazards (land-use zoning, hazard-resistant building design and engineering defences, as well as diversion of lava flows), strategies to modify vulnerability and resilience (high-tech monitoring, prediction, education, and community preparedness and adaptation), and strategies to modify loss (emergency aid, short- and longer-term aid, insurance, and the actions of affected communities themselves).
Other factors relating to vulnerability may include development levels and high inequality, with increased risks due to high poverty rates, unemployment, high population growth, and urbanisation, leading to huge, densely populated informal settlements without infrastructure. This also affects the level of predictive capability.
Vulnerability is also increased by poor governance, possibly corrupt countries led by dictators who ignore the need for building controls and regulations, which leads to dangerous and poor informal settlements becoming established. This also affects the level of predictive capability.

11 AO1 = 3 / AO2 = 9

Level	Marks	Description
	0	No rewardable material.
1	1–4	Demonstrates isolated elements of geographical knowledge and understanding, some of which may be inaccurate or irrelevant. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas, making limited logical connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce an interpretation with limited relevance and/or support. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to make unsupported or generic judgements about the significance of few factors, leading to an argument that is unbalanced or lacks coherence. (AO2)
2	5–8	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is mostly relevant and may include some inaccuracies. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas logically, making some relevant connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce a partial but coherent interpretation that is mostly relevant and supported by evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to make judgements about the significance of some factors, to produce an argument that may be unbalanced or partially coherent. (AO2)
3	9–12	Demonstrates accurate and relevant geographical knowledge and understanding throughout. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas logically, making relevant connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce a full and coherent interpretation that is relevant and supported by evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to make supported judgements about the significance of factors throughout the response, leading to a balanced and coherent argument. (AO2)

Relevant content may include:

AO1

A disaster relates to the interaction of human and physical elements.
Impacts can be measured in terms of social, economic, and environmental costs.
Governance relates to the institutions, organisations, and individuals who manage people’s lives through making decisions about the economy, laws, etc., and ensuring rules are followed.
Vulnerability is the degree to which people are exposed to risks. Resilience is the degree to which they can cope following a hazard impact.
Disasters also occur where most tectonic events occur, and multiple-hazard zones may experience a range of interacting hazards.

AO2

Vulnerability is significantly increased by poor governance, possibly corrupt countries led by dictators, leading to no building controls or lax regulations, which in turn leads to dangerous and poor informal settlements.
Poor governance affects resources and infrastructure. Poor land management can lead to deforestation, increasing the risk from landslides. Building regulations may be lacking, or not be enforced, leading to informal housing. Poor accessibility and isolated communities make it harder to contact everyone after a hazard strikes. High population densities put more people in danger and increase the risk of disease.
Governance also has an impact upon the presence of hazard management, including strategies to modify the impact of tectonic hazards (land-use zoning, hazard-resistant building design and engineering defences, as well as diversion of lava flows), strategies to modify vulnerability and resilience (high-tech monitoring, prediction, education, and community preparedness and adaptation), and strategies to modify loss (emergency aid, short- and longer-term aid, insurance, and the actions of affected communities themselves).
Governance also relates to vulnerability and may include development levels and high inequality, with increased risks due to high poverty rates, unemployment, high population growth, and urbanisation, leading to huge, densely populated informal settlements without infrastructure.
However, other factors include physical location, which is key, and determines the type, nature, and extent of tectonic hazards. Earthquakes can differ depending on the type of boundary and depth. Volcanic explosivity can vary depending on the magma type, with destructive boundaries seeing acidic magma and high explosivity eruptions on the VEI scale.

AO1 = 3 / AO2 = 9

Level	Marks	Description
	0	No rewardable material.
1	1–4	Demonstrates isolated elements of geographical knowledge and understanding, some of which may be inaccurate or irrelevant. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas, making limited logical connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce an interpretation with limited relevance and/or support. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to make unsupported or generic judgements about the significance of few factors, leading to an argument that is unbalanced or lacks coherence. (AO2)
2	5–8	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is mostly relevant and may include some inaccuracies. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas logically, making some relevant connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce a partial but coherent interpretation that is mostly relevant and supported by evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to make judgements about the significance of some factors, to produce an argument that may be unbalanced or partially coherent. (AO2)
3	9–12	Demonstrates accurate and relevant geographical knowledge and understanding throughout. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas logically, making relevant connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce a full and coherent interpretation that is relevant and supported by evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to make supported judgements about the significance of factors throughout the response, leading to a balanced and coherent argument. (AO2)

Relevant content may include:

AO1

Strategies may relate to adaptation and mitigation methods which reduce the impacts.
Strategies to modify the impact of tectonic hazards include land-use zoning, hazard-resistant building design and engineering defences, as well as diversion of lava flows.
Strategies to modify vulnerability and resilience include high-tech monitoring, prediction, education, and community preparedness and adaptation.
Strategies to modify loss include emergency aid, short- and longer-term aid, insurance, and the actions of affected communities themselves.
Prediction and forecasting can be attempted for all hazards with different levels of accuracy depending on the type of hazard and development level of the country.

AO2

Strategies to modify vulnerability and resilience are key. They apply to all types of country and may have the biggest impact. Monitoring volcanoes for increased activity or ocean height following a submarine earthquake can provide prediction and forecasts. Knowledge of how to cope during a hazard event can greatly reduce a population’s vulnerability. Earthquake drills are practised in many countries, including in Japan every year on 1 September, their ‘disaster prevention day’. Emergency kits can also be prepared with instructions on how they can be used (e.g., water purification tablets). First-aid training can also increase resilience. Having locally designed evacuation plans and ready-made disaster kits containing food, water, and medicines improve resilience. Local knowledge of the landscape and vulnerable population means local risk factors can be prepared for, and effective evacuation routes and maps produced.
Strategies to modify the event are vital for developing countries, especially where large populations lie next to hazardous areas. Areas at highest risk are identified and mapped by planners using technology such as GIS. These ‘red zones’ may have restrictions on the types and heights of buildings (i.e. residential), and include evacuation routes. Buildings are designed to withstand tectonic hazards and older buildings can be retrofitted. Designs include cross-bracing and pendulum weights in high-rise blocks, shock absorbing foundations to withstand seismic waves, and reinforced roofs for volcanic ashfalls. Physical defences can be constructed, such as sea walls (e.g. up to 15 m high in Japan) built to withstand tsunamis. Attempts have also been made by engineers to divert lava flows using earth barriers. For example, during 2001, 13 barriers were built around Italy’s Mt Etna lava flows.
Strategies to modify the loss can be useful in developing countries. These are often provided by NGOs and are especially important for less-resilient developing countries. Emergency aid provides the immediate essentials such as food, water, medical care, and shelter. Short-term aid restores essential services such as electricity supply. Longer-term aid rebuilds and supports the economy. Local people are vital for search and rescue following a hazard event, especially in remote parts of developing countries.
Strategies to modify the loss can be useful in developed countries. Insurers provide economic cover for losses to include infrastructure, homes, and losses incurred to business. Some hazards are easier than other to predict (forecast spatially and temporally), with different results. Earthquakes are easier to forecast spatially but not temporally, which makes prediction impossible. Volcanic eruptions are easier in both aspects and can be monitored in a variety of ways to indicate stages of an eruption. Tsunamis relate to earthquakes. However, time travel maps and models can be used to indicate impact locations, which then allow communities to be warned.

AO1 = 3 / AO2 = 9

Level	Marks	Description
	0	No rewardable material.
1	1–4	Demonstrates isolated elements of geographical knowledge and understanding, some of which may be inaccurate or irrelevant. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas, making limited logical connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce an interpretation with limited relevance and/or support. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to make unsupported or generic judgements about the significance of few factors, leading to an argument that is unbalanced or lacks coherence. (AO2)
2	5–8	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is mostly relevant and may include some inaccuracies. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas logically, making some relevant connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce a partial but coherent interpretation that is mostly relevant and supported by evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to make judgements about the significance of some factors, to produce an argument that may be unbalanced or partially coherent. (AO2)
3	9–12	Demonstrates accurate and relevant geographical knowledge and understanding throughout. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas logically, making relevant connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce a full and coherent interpretation that is relevant and supported by evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to make supported judgements about the significance of factors throughout the response, leading to a balanced and coherent argument. (AO2)

Relevant content may include:

A01

The vulnerability can be the result of the tectonic setting of the location affecting the nature of the physical hazards presented.
Vulnerability is also influenced by population density, isolation and accessibility, and the degree of urbanisation.
Vulnerability is also influenced by socio-economic factors such as inequality of access to education, housing, healthcare, and income opportunities.
Governance is key to understand the vulnerability of communities.
Strategies to modify the impact of tectonic hazards include land-use zoning, hazard-resistant building design and engineering defences, as well as diversion of lava flows.

Strategies to modify vulnerability and resilience include high-tech monitoring, prediction, education, and community preparedness and adaptation.
Strategies to modify loss include emergency aid, short- and longer-term aid, insurance, and the actions of affected communities themselves.

A02

Physical location is key and determines the type, nature, and extent of tectonic hazards. Earthquakes can differ depending on the type of boundary and depth. Volcanic explosivity can vary depending on the magma type, with destructive boundaries seeing acidic magma and high explosivity eruptions on the VEI scale.
Most tsunamis are recorded in the Pacific Ocean, making this region’s communities more vulnerable than communities situated elsewhere.
However, vulnerability is determined in part by development levels and associated high inequality, with increased risks due to high poverty rates, unemployment, high population growth, and urbanisation, leading to huge, densely populated informal settlements without infrastructure.
Closely connected to this is poor governance, which is more likely in developing nations (cause of effect or both), with corrupt countries led by dictators who ignore building controls and regulations, which in turn leads to dangerous and poor informal housing becoming established. This also affects the level of predictive capability.
Development levels affect the degree to which hazards can be modified. Strategies to modify the impact of tectonic hazards (land-use zoning, hazard-resistant building design and engineering defences, as well as diversion of lava flows), strategies to modify vulnerability and resilience (high-tech monitoring, prediction, education, and community preparedness and adaptation), and strategies to modify loss (emergency aid, short- and longer-term aid, insurance, and the actions of affected communities themselves).
Development also has an impact on predictive capability, with some hazards being easier than others to predict (forecast spatially and temporally). Earthquakes are easier to forecast spatially but not temporally, which makes prediction impossible. Volcanic eruptions are easier in both aspects and can be monitored in a variety of ways to indicate stages of eruption. Tsunamis relate to earthquakes. However, time travel maps and models are used to indicate impact locations, which then allows communities to be warned.

AO1 = 3 / AO2 = 9

Level	Marks	Description
	0	No rewardable material.
1	1–4	Demonstrates isolated elements of geographical knowledge and understanding, some of which may be inaccurate or irrelevant. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas, making limited logical connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce an interpretation with limited relevance and/or support. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to make unsupported or generic judgements about the significance of few factors, leading to an argument that is unbalanced or lacks coherence. (AO2)
2	5–8	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is mostly relevant and may include some inaccuracies. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas logically, making some relevant connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce a partial but coherent interpretation that is mostly relevant and supported by evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to make judgements about the significance of some factors, to produce an argument that may be unbalanced or partially coherent. (AO2)
3	9–12	Demonstrates accurate and relevant geographical knowledge and understanding throughout. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas logically, making relevant connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce a full and coherent interpretation that is relevant and supported by evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to make supported judgements about the significance of factors throughout the response, leading to a balanced and coherent argument. (AO2)

Relevant content may include:

AO1

The hazard management cycle includes:
- ○ ‘Response’ following a disaster. Victims receive immediate help in the form of search and rescue to save lives, and aid to keep people alive, including food, water, and emergency shelter.
- ○ ‘Recovery’ includes the reconstruction of homes and essential services, as well as the rehabilitation of the injured and those who have been socially and economically impacted.
- ○ ‘Mitigation’ starts to look forward to the next disaster and includes land-use zoning and hazard-resistant buildings and infrastructure.
- ○ ‘Preparedness’ looks to increase resilience through community education and prediction, and warning and evacuation technology and systems.

These components follow one another in preparation for the next event. They can be associated with the stages of Park’s model of disaster response and the modification of tectonic loss, events, and vulnerability.
Strategies to modify the events of tectonic hazards include land-use zoning, hazard-resistant building design and engineering defences, as well as diversion of lava flows.
Strategies to modify vulnerability and resilience include high-tech monitoring, prediction, education, and community preparedness and adaptation.
Strategies to modify loss include emergency aid, short- and longer-term aid, insurance, and the actions of affected communities themselves.

A02

Each stage is important and contributes to mitigating the degree of impact from a tectonic hazard. The types of impact may be affected by different stages, with health impacts being more pressing during the response stage, and economic impacts being more important later on.
Aid and immediate responses are key in the short-term, but do not mitigate future impacts.
The development level of a country will determine which components of the hazard management cycle are most effective.
More developed countries may regard all stages as important, but especially the mitigation and preparedness stages, where strategies to modify the impact of tectonic hazards (land-use zoning, hazard-resistant building design and engineering defences, as well as diversion of lava flows), strategies to modify vulnerability and resilience (high-tech monitoring, prediction, education, and community preparedness and adaptation) are seen as key preparations. The response stage is usually well-prepared for, and previous mitigation should have made the need for search and rescue and aid less vital.
Developing countries may find ‘mitigation’ difficult due to costs, expertise, and existing infrastructure, and so rely on lower-cost methods to engage in community education and mitigation. Aid may be more important, as poor mitigation may have left the population at a high risk to hazards. Poor governance in developing countries may exacerbate these issues.
Expect arguments that underlying vulnerability may be more important than any stage of management, as vulnerability is associated with high inequality, with increased risks due to high poverty rates, unemployment, high population growth, and urbanisation, leading to huge, densely populated informal settlements without infrastructure.
Expect arguments that the underlying physical location may be more important than any stage of management, as the physical location is key, and determines the type, nature, and extent of tectonic hazards. Earthquakes can differ depending on the type of boundary and depth. Volcanic explosivity can vary depending on the magma type, with destructive boundaries seeing acidic magma and high explosivity eruptions on the VEI scale.

AO1 = 3 / AO2 = 9

Level	Marks	Description
	0	No rewardable material.
1	1–4	Demonstrates isolated elements of geographical knowledge and understanding, some of which may be inaccurate or irrelevant. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas, making limited logical connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce an interpretation with limited relevance and/or support. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to make unsupported or generic judgements about the significance of few factors, leading to an argument that is unbalanced or lacks coherence. (AO2)
2	5–8	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is mostly relevant and may include some inaccuracies. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas logically, making some relevant connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce a partial but coherent interpretation that is mostly relevant and supported by evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to make judgements about the significance of some factors, to produce an argument that may be unbalanced or partially coherent. (AO2)
3	9–12	Demonstrates accurate and relevant geographical knowledge and understanding throughout. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas logically, making relevant connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce a full and coherent interpretation that is relevant and supported by evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to make supported judgements about the significance of factors throughout the response, leading to a balanced and coherent argument. (AO2)

Relevant content may include:

AO1

Disaster trends suggest that although tectonic hazards are relatively steady over time, the number of people affected seems to fluctuate and is possibly falling, although this is unclear.
The amount of economic damage is increasing, and this can be seen as part of the impacts on people. The increases are highest in developed countries.
Deaths seem to be falling yet are skewed by mega-disasters.
Mega-disasters, such as the Tohoku tsunami in Japan in 2011, are high-impact, low-probability events which can play a significant role in affecting the trend.

A02

Increasing populations and increasingly risky locations of urban areas have placed populations at greater risk from earthquakes, volcanic hazards, and tsunamis, especially in developing countries where poor governance and population pressures have led to the growth of informal urban settlements and developments on more peripheral land.
Populations are also arguably more vulnerable due to rising inequality, with increased risks due to high poverty rates, unemployment, high population growth, and urbanisation, all leading to huge, densely populated informal settlements with low education standards and without infrastructure.
Vulnerability is also increased by poor governance, possibly corrupt countries led by dictators, leading to no building controls or lax regulations, which in turn lead to dangerous and poor informal housing.
Expect critical evaluation of disaster trend data. Disaster trends may be incorrect due to poor collection, political and NGO bias, and differences in measuring and recording impacts, alongside the increased technology that allows increased monitoring and reporting of tectonic disasters and events.
Single events may skew the data and give a false impression of more people being affected, notably the Haiti earthquake of 2010 and Tohoku tsunami in Japan the following year. The Eyjafjallajökull eruption in Iceland in 2010 affected a large number of people (although with little risk) due to the type of eruption, yet was a single, rare, mega-disaster event.
An increasing over-reliance on technology and the ability of predictive capability may lead to people settling in riskier areas. Some hazards are easier than others to forecast spatially and temporally with different results. Earthquakes are easier to forecast spatially but not temporally, which makes prediction impossible. Volcanic eruptions are easier in both aspects and can be monitored in a variety of ways to indicate stages of an eruption.

Chapter 2

All exemplar answers given are likely to be in the top mark band.

Questions are level-marked.

AO1 = 3 / AO2 = 3

Level	Marks	Description
	0	No rewardable material.
1	1–2	Demonstrates isolated or generic elements of geographical knowledge and understanding, some of which may be inaccurate or irrelevant. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding to geographical information inconsistently. Connections/relationships between stimulus material and the question may be irrelevant. (AO2)
2	3–4	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is mostly relevant and may include some inaccuracies. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding to geographical information to find some relevant connections/relationships between stimulus material and the question. (AO2)
3	5–6	Demonstrates accurate and relevant geographical knowledge and understanding throughout. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding to geographical information logically to find fully relevant connections/relationships between stimulus material and the question. (AO2)

Relevant content may include:

Patterned ground is formed by repeated freezing and thawing cycles. For example:
- ○ Ice-wedge polygons: the most common form of patterned ground. In permafrost areas, ice wedges form due to the repeated freezing and expansion of water in the ground. As ice accumulates in vertical cracks, it displaces the surrounding soil, creating a distinctive polygonal pattern on the landscape.
- ○ Frost action and freeze-thaw cycles: periglacial regions experience repeated freeze-thaw cycles, where diurnal temperature fluctuations cause water in the soil to freeze and thaw. This process induces mechanical stress on the ground surface.
- ○ Frost heave: frost heave occurs when the freezing of subsurface water causes an uplift of the ground surface. This process is particularly influential in periglacial regions, leading to the formation of raised mounds or hummocks, contributing to the overall patterning.
- ○ Solifluction lobes: periglacial regions often exhibit solifluction, where the slow downslope movement of saturated soil occurs over the frozen ground during thaw periods. This process contributes to the formation of lobes or terracettes, creating a characteristic pattern on hillslopes.

Example answer: Figure 1 shows patterned ground in a permafrost area. In very low temperatures, as experienced in the Icelandic highlands, the ground contracts and cracks develop. During the summer, meltwater fills the cracks and then freezes in the winter. The frozen water forms ice wedges, which increase in size through repeated freezing and thawing cycles. This affects the ground surface, by forming narrow surface ridges due to frost heave. As the ice wedges become more extensive, a polygonal pattern is formed on the ground, with the ice wedges at the sides of the polygons. This causes patterned ground to form, as in the photograph.

AO1 = 3 / AO2 = 3

Level	Marks	Description
	0	No rewardable material.
1	1–2	Demonstrates isolated or generic elements of geographical knowledge and understanding, some of which may be inaccurate or irrelevant. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding to geographical information inconsistently. Connections/relationships between stimulus material and the question may be irrelevant. (AO2)
2	3–4	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is mostly relevant and may include some inaccuracies. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding to geographical information to find some relevant connections/relationships between stimulus material and the question. (AO2)
3	5–6	Demonstrates accurate and relevant geographical knowledge and understanding throughout. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding to geographical information logically to find fully relevant connections/relationships between stimulus material and the question. (AO2)

Relevant content may include:

Overall, there is an increasing trend of negative mass balance. Since the late 1980s, there has not been a single year of positive gain.
Over this 70-year period, most individual years show a negative mass balance. Over the last decade, the majority of years have exceeded −0.8 m w.e. (metre water equivalent) and four years exceed −1.0 m w.e., which occurred only once before, in 1950.
In this period, there has been a net increase in only five years, all between 1955 and 1988, showing a range of 0.29 m w.e.
Over this period, the outputs of ablation by melting, sublimation, and calving have been greater than the inputs of accumulation from direct snowfall and other precipitation, blown snow, and avalanches.
This decline in mass balance indicates a warming of these glacial areas over this 70-year period; the glaciers are melting. However, as the data shows the average accumulated mass balance, there is no allowance for any regional variation.

AO1 = 3 / AO2 = 3

Level	Marks	Description
	0	No rewardable material.
1	1–2	Demonstrates isolated or generic elements of geographical knowledge and understanding, some of which may be inaccurate or irrelevant. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding to geographical information inconsistently. Connections/relationships between stimulus material and the question may be irrelevant. (AO2)
2	3–4	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is mostly relevant and may include some inaccuracies. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding to geographical information to find some relevant connections/relationships between stimulus material and the question. (AO2)
3	5–6	Demonstrates accurate and relevant geographical knowledge and understanding throughout. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding to geographical information logically to find fully relevant connections/relationships between stimulus material and the question. (AO2)

Relevant content may include:

Travel can be impacted (the photograph shows boulders on the road). Glacial outburst floods can also cause roads and bridges to be washed away.
If travel is disrupted, access to work may also be blocked, which will have an impact on people’s ability to support themselves and their families.
Damaged infrastructure can also cause isolation, with people unable to visit friends and family.
In some locations, floods can cause deaths and the destruction of homes. Electricity supplies may be damaged.
Economic multiplier effect: the lack of work and spending in the local area can lead to a decline in living standards. In LICs, this can be dramatic.

AO1 = 6

Level	Marks	Description
	0	No rewardable material.
1	1–2	Demonstrates isolated elements of geographical knowledge and understanding, some of which may be inaccurate or irrelevant. (AO1) Understanding addresses a narrow range of geographical ideas, which lack detail. (AO1)
2	3–4	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is mostly relevant and may include some inaccuracies. (AO1) Understanding addresses a range of geographical ideas, which are not fully detailed and/or developed. (AO1)
3	5–6	Demonstrates accurate and relevant geographical knowledge and understanding throughout. (AO1) Understanding addresses a broad range of geographical ideas, which are detailed and fully developed. (AO1)

Relevant content may include:

A clear definition of moraines as glacial landforms, with examples of their presence in glaciated landscapes.
Recognition that moraines are remnants of glacial debris.
An explanation that the size and distribution of moraines can indicate the extent and movement of glaciers.
Reference to the role of moraines in reconstructing past glacial dynamics, such as advances, retreats, and periods of stability.

AO1 = 3 / AO2 = 3

Level	Marks	Description
	0	No rewardable material.
1	1–2	Demonstrates isolated or generic elements of geographical knowledge and understanding, some of which may be inaccurate or irrelevant. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding to geographical information inconsistently. Connections/relationships between stimulus material and the question may be irrelevant. (AO2)
2	3–4	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is mostly relevant and may include some inaccuracies. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding to geographical information to find some relevant connections/relationships between stimulus material and the question. (AO2)
3	5–6	Demonstrates accurate and relevant geographical knowledge and understanding throughout. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding to geographical information logically to find fully relevant connections/relationships between stimulus material and the question. (AO2)

Relevant content may include:

The mean cumulative mass change shows a decline over the 70-year period. In the 1950s and early 1960s, all regions show a positive mass change, with Western Canada and USA reaching a maximum level of about 7 m w.e. By 2021, the greatest range is 46 m w.e. in the Central Europe and Western Canada and USA regions, with a drop to 39 m w.e. in both.
From 1976, the mean cumulative mass change declines from 0 to –25 m w.e. Several regions had reached 0 prior to 1976 (e.g. Scandinavia in 1961).
As with the other regions, the Southern Andes shows an overall rate of decline, but also shows some periods of incline. Overall, the Southern Andes shows more stark fluctuations, perhaps due to the effects of El Niño episodes.
The data shows that there is a decline in mass balance in every glacial region in the world, but with some areas declining faster than others. For example, there is a very steep decline in Western Canada but a much slower rate of decline in Arctic Canada North.

AO1 = 3 / AO2 = 3

Level	Marks	Description
	0	No rewardable material.
1	1–2	Demonstrates isolated or generic elements of geographical knowledge and understanding, some of which may be inaccurate or irrelevant. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding to geographical information inconsistently. Connections/relationships between stimulus material and the question may be irrelevant. (AO2)
2	3–4	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is mostly relevant and may include some inaccuracies. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding to geographical information to find some relevant connections/relationships between stimulus material and the question. (AO2)
3	5–6	Demonstrates accurate and relevant geographical knowledge and understanding throughout. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding to geographical information logically to find fully relevant connections/relationships between stimulus material and the question. (AO2)

Relevant content may include:

Periglacial environments can demonstrate many distinctive features. Figure 5 shows:
- ○ Thermokarst lakes: formed due to the thawing of ice-rich permafrost. As permafrost thaws, it can create depressions in the landscape that fill with water, forming thermokarst lakes. These lakes are common in Arctic tundra regions and are indicative of periglacial processes.
- ○ Uneven ground: freeze-thaw cycles in permafrost leads to the development of hummocks and troughs.
- ○ Low-lying vegetation: the seasonal freezing of the active layer, and permanent wet and cold conditions, leads to slow vegetation growth of mostly mosses and lichens. High winds ensure these stay close to the ground.

AO1 = 8

Level	Marks	Description
	0	No rewardable material.
1	1–2	Demonstrates isolated elements of geographical knowledge and understanding, some of which may be inaccurate or irrelevant. (AO1) Understanding addresses a narrow range of geographical ideas, which lack detail. (AO1)
2	3–5	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is mostly relevant and may include some inaccuracies. (AO1) Understanding addresses a range of geographical ideas, which are not fully detailed and/or developed. (AO1)
3	6–8	Demonstrates accurate and relevant geographical knowledge and understanding throughout. (AO1) Understanding addresses a broad range of geographical ideas, which are detailed and fully developed. (AO1)

Relevant content may include:

Periglaciation occurs in climates that are subject to repeated freezing and thawing, and are usually found on the margins of glaciated areas.
Due to melting of snow and refreezing to ice, sparse vegetation and high winds, distinctive landforms are developed.
Distinctive periglacial landforms include:
- ○ Ice wedges, formed when water melts into cracks and joints in the rock. As it freezes, it expands and forces sediment towards the surface, often producing patterned ground through frost heave.
- ○ Patterned ground is caused by repeated freezing and thawing cycles which create patterns of sorted stones on the ground surface. The slope on which they form determines whether they are circles, polygons, or stripes.
- ○ Pingos are dome-shaped mounds formed by the freezing and expansion of groundwater, reaching up to 600 m in diameter and up to 70 m in height. Open system pingos form as groundwater is forced upwards through a crack in the permafrost doming the ground surface. Closed system pingos are formed when a surface lake drains, and the permafrost is advancing underneath. The permafrost forces the water into the centre which then freezes forming the ice core. If the ice core melts, the pingo can collapse.
- ○ Loess is fine sediment that is blown by the high winds in the periglacial environment, sometimes great distances, and deposited as the wind drops.
Distinctive periglacial landscapes include:
- ○ The Arctic Tundra found in the northern regions of Canada, Alaska, Russia, and Scandinavia. Periglacial landforms here include permafrost, pingos, polygonal ground, thermokarst lakes, and widespread cryosols.
- ○ The Siberian Yedoma Region in northern Russia has distinctive periglacial landforms including extensive permafrost and gelifluction terraces.

Example answer: Periglacial areas, characterised by intense freeze-thaw processes demonstrate distinctive unique landforms.

Periglacial and glacial landscapes are both cold environments commonly associated with high latitudes, but periglacial areas display distinctive landforms. A periglacial landscape is characterised by ground that is perennially frozen, termed permafrost, but unlike glacial regions, it does not have any present surface ice in the form of glacier ice flows. In contrast, glacial landscapes are directly sculpted by the movement of ice in the form of glaciers or ice sheets. The processes that shape periglacial landscapes, such as solifluction, frost action, and thermal contraction, differ markedly from the glacial processes of plucking and abrasion.

Distinctive periglacial landforms include ice wedges, formed when water melts into cracks and joints in the rock. As it freezes, it expands and forces sediment towards the surface, often producing patterned ground through frost heave. Another distinctive landform is patterned ground, caused by repeated freezing and thawing cycles which create patterns of sorted stones on the ground surface. The slope on which they form determines whether they are circles, polygons, or stripes. Pingos are another distinctive periglacial landform. These are dome-shaped mounds formed by the freezing and expansion of groundwater.

AO1 = 8

Level	Marks	Description
	0	No rewardable material.
1	1–2	Demonstrates isolated elements of geographical knowledge and understanding, some of which may be inaccurate or irrelevant. (AO1) Understanding addresses a narrow range of geographical ideas, which lack detail. (AO1)
2	3–5	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is mostly relevant and may include some inaccuracies. (AO1) Understanding addresses a range of geographical ideas, which are not fully detailed and/or developed. (AO1)
3	6–8	Demonstrates accurate and relevant geographical knowledge and understanding throughout. (AO1) Understanding addresses a broad range of geographical ideas, which are detailed and fully developed. (AO1)

Relevant content may include:

Moraine is a remnant of glacial debris. It is mostly evident after glacial retreat, and is formed by deposition.
Types of moraine include: ground, terminal, recessional, lateral, and medial.
The size and distribution of moraines can indicate the past extent and movement of glaciers over time, such as advances, retreats, and periods of stability. These can be used to help reconstruct past climate changes.

AO1 = 8

Level	Marks	Description
	0	No rewardable material.
1	1–2	Demonstrates isolated elements of geographical knowledge and understanding, some of which may be inaccurate or irrelevant. (AO1) Understanding addresses a narrow range of geographical ideas, which lack detail. (AO1)
2	3–5	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is mostly relevant and may include some inaccuracies. (AO1) Understanding addresses a range of geographical ideas, which are not fully detailed and/or developed. (AO1)
3	6–8	Demonstrates accurate and relevant geographical knowledge and understanding throughout. (AO1) Understanding addresses a broad range of geographical ideas, which are detailed and fully developed. (AO1)

Relevant content may include:

Intense freeze-thaw processes and unique landforms that characterise periglacial areas provide valuable opportunities for studying climate change. However, the effectiveness of these areas as indicators of climate change is subject to certain limitations.
Features such as patterned ground, solifluction lobes, and pingos are sensitive indicators of temperature variations and changing precipitation patterns.
Studying the expansion or contraction of permafrost enables researchers to reconstruct past climatic conditions and project future changes, contributing to our understanding of long-term climate trends.
However, the use of periglacial areas to study climate change is not without challenges. For example, it is difficult to isolate the specific influence of climate change from other factors such as local geomorphological conditions.
Variations in permafrost response to climate change may differ regionally. For instance, permafrost thaw in Arctic regions may not mirror the patterns observed in subarctic or alpine periglacial areas.
Absence of long-term historic monitoring makes it challenging to differentiate between natural variability and anthropogenic influences on periglacial landscapes.

AO1 = 8

Level	Marks	Description
	0	No rewardable material.
1	1–2	Demonstrates isolated elements of geographical knowledge and understanding, some of which may be inaccurate or irrelevant. (AO1) Understanding addresses a narrow range of geographical ideas, which lack detail. (AO1)
2	3–5	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is mostly relevant and may include some inaccuracies. (AO1) Understanding addresses a range of geographical ideas, which are not fully detailed and/or developed. (AO1)
3	6–8	Demonstrates accurate and relevant geographical knowledge and understanding throughout. (AO1) Understanding addresses a broad range of geographical ideas, which are detailed and fully developed. (AO1)

Relevant content may include:

Mass balance = accumulation +/- ablation. It results from the gains and losses in the ice store (the glacier).
Inputs include accumulation from direct snowfall and other precipitation, blown snow, and avalanches.
Outputs are from ablation by melting, sublimation, evaporation, avalanches, and calving.
Positive feedback: processes within the system amplify the inputs to lead to rapid change.
Negative feedback: processes balance any changes in the inputs to return the system to equilibrium.
Changes in mass balance, including variations in glacier volume and thickness, are directly linked to shifts in global and local temperature and precipitation patterns.
The mass balance is closely tied to sea level rise. Monitoring and comprehending changes in glacier mass help in assessing the contribution of melting glaciers to rising sea levels. This information is vital for predicting future sea level changes and implementing appropriate adaptation strategies.
Glaciers play a significant role in the global water cycle, acting as natural reservoirs. Understanding the mass balance helps in predicting the availability of water resources from glacial melt. This is particularly important for regions that heavily rely on glacial meltwater for agriculture, drinking water, and hydropower generation.
The mass balance is crucial for assessing and mitigating glacial hazards such as glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs).
Governments and policymakers can use information on glacial mass balance to develop effective climate change mitigation and adaptation strategies.
Knowledge of the glacial mass balance contributes to advancements in scientific research and modelling.
It is also crucial for educating the public about the impacts of climate change.

AO1 = 8

Level	Marks	Description
	0	No rewardable material.
1	1–2	Demonstrates isolated elements of geographical knowledge and understanding, some of which may be inaccurate or irrelevant. (AO1) Understanding addresses a narrow range of geographical ideas, which lack detail. (AO1)
2	3–5	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is mostly relevant and may include some inaccuracies. (AO1) Understanding addresses a range of geographical ideas, which are not fully detailed and/or developed. (AO1)
3	6–8	Demonstrates accurate and relevant geographical knowledge and understanding throughout. (AO1) Understanding addresses a broad range of geographical ideas, which are detailed and fully developed. (AO1)

Relevant content may include:

Past climate changes: a description of historical climate fluctuations in periglacial regions.
The influence of past climate variability on geomorphic processes.
Geomorphic processes: an explanation of processes such as freeze-thaw action, solifluction, and frost heave; the role of these processes in shaping periglacial landscapes and forming characteristic landforms.
Formation of landforms: patterned ground, pingos, etc.
The modification of landforms by current climate changes: permafrost degradation and thawing, and accelerated rates of erosion and solifluction due to warming temperatures.
Future climate change implications: the potential for increased frequency and intensity of periglacial processes as glacial areas become periglacial; forecasted changes in landform distribution and characteristics under future climate scenarios.

AO1 = 8

Level	Marks	Description
	0	No rewardable material.
1	1–2	Demonstrates isolated elements of geographical knowledge and understanding, some of which may be inaccurate or irrelevant. (AO1) Understanding addresses a narrow range of geographical ideas, which lack detail. (AO1)
2	3–5	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is mostly relevant and may include some inaccuracies. (AO1) Understanding addresses a range of geographical ideas, which are not fully detailed and/or developed. (AO1)
3	6–8	Demonstrates accurate and relevant geographical knowledge and understanding throughout. (AO1) Understanding addresses a broad range of geographical ideas, which are detailed and fully developed. (AO1)

Relevant content may include:

Erosion, transportation, and deposition of sediment by flowing glacial meltwater (which is common in some glacial environments in seasonal temperature variations), either supraglacial, englacial, or subglacial (all in contact with the glacier).
A full explanation of the processes to form each of the chosen features. For example:
- ○ Ice contact features (englacial and subglacial): kames, eskers, and kame terraces.
- ○ Proglacial features: sandurs (outwash plains), proglacial lakes, meltwater channels (braided streams), and kettle holes.
Include specific examples from chosen case studies.
It is not necessary to give each feature in detail. You could list those not covered in your concluding sentence.

AO1 = 8

Level	Marks	Description
	0	No rewardable material.
1	1–2	Demonstrates isolated elements of geographical knowledge and understanding, some of which may be inaccurate or irrelevant. (AO1) Understanding addresses a narrow range of geographical ideas, which lack detail. (AO1)
2	3–5	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is mostly relevant and may include some inaccuracies. (AO1) Understanding addresses a range of geographical ideas, which are not fully detailed and/or developed. (AO1)
3	6–8	Demonstrates accurate and relevant geographical knowledge and understanding throughout. (AO1) Understanding addresses a broad range of geographical ideas, which are detailed and fully developed. (AO1)

Relevant content may include:

The definition of fluvioglacial landforms as features formed by the interaction of glacial meltwater and sediment transport.
An explanation of how fluvioglacial landforms influence hydrological systems in glaciated regions.
The impact on water resource management: important components of hydrological networks, regulating water flow and storage; analysis of the role of features like outwash plains and alluvial fans in storing and releasing water, affecting downstream water availability.
Water resource management considerations: sustainable water resource management; the complexity of challenges and opportunities in managing water resources in glaciated regions due to the presence of fluvioglacial features.
Include named case study examples.
A consideration of how changes in fluvioglacial landforms due to climate change may impact water resource management in glaciated regions in the future.
A discussion of the potential challenges and adaptation strategies for managing water resources in the face of changing fluvioglacial dynamics.

AO1 = 8

Level	Marks	Description
	0	No rewardable material.
1	1–2	Demonstrates isolated elements of geographical knowledge and understanding, some of which may be inaccurate or irrelevant. (AO1) Understanding addresses a narrow range of geographical ideas, which lack detail. (AO1)
2	3–5	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is mostly relevant and may include some inaccuracies. (AO1) Understanding addresses a range of geographical ideas, which are not fully detailed and/or developed. (AO1)
3	6–8	Demonstrates accurate and relevant geographical knowledge and understanding throughout. (AO1) Understanding addresses a broad range of geographical ideas, which are detailed and fully developed. (AO1)

Relevant content may include:

Fluvioglacial landforms result from the interaction of glacial meltwater and sediment transport.
Erosion, transportation, and deposition of sediment by flowing glacial meltwater (which is common in some glacial environments in seasonal temperature variations), either supraglacial, englacial, or subglacial (all in contact with the glacier).
A description of fluvioglacial landforms, including:
- ○ ice contact features (englacial and subglacial): kames, eskers, and kame terraces
- ○ proglacial features: sandurs (outwash plains), proglacial lakes, meltwater channels (braided streams), and kettle holes.
The differences between fluvioglacial and glacial landforms in terms of their morphology and sediment composition. For example, fluvioglacial processes sort sediment by size, whereas glacial processes do not.
A description of glacial landforms such as cirques, arêtes, pyramidal peaks, glacial troughs, hanging valleys, ribbon lakes, etc.
Specific named examples of glacial and/or fluvioglacial landscapes.

AO1 = 8

Level	Marks	Description
	0	No rewardable material.
1	1–2	Demonstrates isolated elements of geographical knowledge and understanding, some of which may be inaccurate or irrelevant. (AO1) Understanding addresses a narrow range of geographical ideas, which lack detail. (AO1)
2	3–5	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is mostly relevant and may include some inaccuracies. (AO1) Understanding addresses a range of geographical ideas, which are not fully detailed and/or developed. (AO1)
3	6–8	Demonstrates accurate and relevant geographical knowledge and understanding throughout. (AO1) Understanding addresses a broad range of geographical ideas, which are detailed and fully developed. (AO1)

Relevant content may include:

The importance of fluvioglacial landforms in reconstructing past glacier extents, ice dynamics, and climate conditions.
An analysis of how features like outwash plains, eskers, and kame terraces provide evidence of glacial meltwater discharge and sediment deposition.
An examination of how changes in fluvioglacial landforms over time reflect environmental shifts such as climate fluctuations and deglaciation.
Variations in sediment composition and stratigraphy within fluvioglacial deposits provide insights into past environmental conditions.
A description of how the study of fluvioglacial landforms contributes to reconstructing past landscapes and understanding landscape evolution.
How mapping and analysis of fluvioglacial features aid our interpretation of paleoenvironments and paleoclimate conditions.

AO1 = 5 / AO2 = 15

Level	Marks	Description
	0	No rewardable material.
1	1–5	Demonstrates isolated elements of geographical knowledge and understanding, some of which may be inaccurate or irrelevant. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical ideas, making limited and rarely logical connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce an interpretation with limited coherence and support from evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce an unsupported or generic conclusion, drawn from an argument that is unbalanced or lacks coherence. (AO2)
2	6–10	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is occasionally relevant and may include some inaccuracies. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas with limited but logical connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical ideas in order to produce a partial interpretation that is supported by some evidence but has limited coherence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to come to a conclusion, partially supported by an unbalanced argument with limited coherence. (AO2)
3	11–15	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is mostly relevant and accurate. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to find some logical and relevant connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical ideas in order to produce a partial but coherent interpretation that is supported by some evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to come to a conclusion, largely supported by an argument that may be unbalanced or partially coherent. (AO2)
4	16–20	Demonstrates accurate and relevant geographical knowledge and understanding throughout. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to find fully logical and relevant connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce a full and coherent interpretation that is supported by evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to come to a rational, substantiated conclusion, fully supported by a balanced argument that is drawn together coherently. (AO2)

Relevant content may include:

There is an increase in meltwater discharge and sediment transport as a glacier retreats.
There is a release of stored meltwater, intensifying fluvioglacial erosion and deposition.
Changes in glacier morphology and ice dynamics affect the pattern and magnitude of fluvioglacial processes.
Glacial retreat exposes new areas for fluvioglacial erosion and deposition, leading to the formation of new landforms.
A description of the role of meltwater streams in sculpting valleys, transporting sediment, and forming features such as eskers and outwash plains.
Recognition of positive feedback mechanisms, where increased meltwater discharge accelerates glacier retreat, and the implications for landscape evolution and geomorphic change in glaciated regions.
Named chosen case study examples.
Ongoing and future glacial retreat due to climate change may further impact fluvioglacial processes and landform development.
The potential consequences for landscape stability, water resources, and environmental management in glaciated regions.
The release of meltwater can lead to the formation of proglacial lakes, which affect the stability of surrounding slopes and influence landforms (e.g. the retreat of glaciers in the Himalayas).

Example answer:

Glacial meltwater plays a crucial role in shaping glaciated landscapes, contributing to their distinctiveness through various geomorphological processes. The significance of meltwater in creating these landscapes can be evaluated through its impact on erosion, transportation, and deposition of sediments, as well as its role in forming specific landforms.

Glacial meltwater significantly enhances erosion in glaciated regions. As glaciers melt, the resulting water flows beneath and around the ice, often under high pressure. This subglacial meltwater can erode bedrock through plucking, where water infiltrates cracks in the rock, freezes, and then expands, causing pieces of rock to break off. Meltwater also facilitates abrasion, where the water carries sediment and rocks that grind against the bedrock, smoothing and polishing it. Meltwater channels can also transport sediment. These sediments range from fine silt to large boulders.

Meltwater can carve deep valleys and gorges, creating distinctive landforms. An example of this is the fjords found in regions like Norway and New Zealand, which were formed by glacial erosion and subsequently deepened by meltwater flow.

The deposition of sediments by glacial meltwater also contributes to the creation of distinctive glaciated landscapes. As the speed of meltwater decreases, it can no longer carry sediments, leading to deposition. This process forms distinctive glacial landforms, such as outwash plains, eskers, and kames. Outwash plains are expansive, flat areas formed by sediments deposited by meltwater flowing from the glacier. Eskers are sinuous ridges of sand and gravel deposited by streams that flowed within or beneath the glacier. These ridges trace the path of the sub-glacial meltwater channels. Kames are irregularly shaped hills or mounds of sand and gravel deposited by meltwater in depressions or holes in the glacier. When the glacier retreats, these deposits are left behind. Meltwater is instrumental in the creation of these distinctive landforms.

AO1 = 5 / AO2 = 15

Level	Marks	Description
	0	No rewardable material.
1	1–5	Demonstrates isolated elements of geographical knowledge and understanding, some of which may be inaccurate or irrelevant. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical ideas, making limited and rarely logical connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce an interpretation with limited coherence and support from evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce an unsupported or generic conclusion, drawn from an argument that is unbalanced or lacks coherence. (AO2)
2	6–10	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is occasionally relevant and may include some inaccuracies. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas with limited but logical connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical ideas in order to produce a partial interpretation that is supported by some evidence but has limited coherence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to come to a conclusion, partially supported by an unbalanced argument with limited coherence. (AO2)
3	11–15	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is mostly relevant and accurate. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to find some logical and relevant connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical ideas in order to produce a partial but coherent interpretation that is supported by some evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to come to a conclusion, largely supported by an argument that may be unbalanced or partially coherent. (AO2)
4	16–20	Demonstrates accurate and relevant geographical knowledge and understanding throughout. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to find fully logical and relevant connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce a full and coherent interpretation that is supported by evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to come to a rational, substantiated conclusion, fully supported by a balanced argument that is drawn together coherently. (AO2)

Relevant content may include:

Glaciated environments (those with glaciers and associated landforms) offer a unique set of opportunities and challenges for development.
This is primarily due to the abundance of natural resources there. For example, hydropower potential (Norway), oil and mineral deposits (Canada), and tourism (New Zealand).
However, alongside these opportunities, there are substantial environmental concerns associated with development in glaciated environments.
Development can impact directly on the environment. For example, the alteration of natural drainage patterns due to infrastructure development can lead to increased sedimentation in rivers and lakes, negatively impacting aquatic ecosystems. The construction of dams for hydropower projects may disrupt the natural flow of glacial rivers, affecting fish habitats and biodiversity (e.g. Patagonia).
Conclusion: while significant economic benefits can be reaped from glaciated environments, it is crucial to adopt sustainable practices that minimise negative environmental impacts. Striking a balance between development and conservation is imperative to ensure the long-term wellbeing of these unique and fragile ecosystems, acknowledging that environmental concerns must be carefully addressed to truly harness the opportunities presented by glaciated environments.

AO1 = 5 / AO2 = 15

Level	Marks	Description
	0	No rewardable material.
1	1–5	Demonstrates isolated elements of geographical knowledge and understanding, some of which may be inaccurate or irrelevant. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical ideas, making limited and rarely logical connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce an interpretation with limited coherence and support from evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce an unsupported or generic conclusion, drawn from an argument that is unbalanced or lacks coherence. (AO2)
2	6–10	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is occasionally relevant and may include some inaccuracies. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas with limited but logical connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical ideas in order to produce a partial interpretation that is supported by some evidence but has limited coherence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to come to a conclusion, partially supported by an unbalanced argument with limited coherence. (AO2)
3	11–15	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is mostly relevant and accurate. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to find some logical and relevant connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical ideas in order to produce a partial but coherent interpretation that is supported by some evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to come to a conclusion, largely supported by an argument that may be unbalanced or partially coherent. (AO2)
4	16–20	Demonstrates accurate and relevant geographical knowledge and understanding throughout. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to find fully logical and relevant connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce a full and coherent interpretation that is supported by evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to come to a rational, substantiated conclusion, fully supported by a balanced argument that is drawn together coherently. (AO2)

Relevant content may include:

Fluvioglacial landscapes are shaped by the interaction of meltwater from glaciers with river systems, and exhibit a complex interplay of erosional and depositional processes.
Erosional:
- ○ Meltwater streams originating from glaciers possess significant erosive power due to the entrainment of rock debris, which acts as abrasive agents.
- ○ Abrasion, plucking, and hydraulic action are key erosional processes that contribute to the deepening and widening of valleys in fluvioglacial landscapes. For example, in the Alps, the U-shaped valleys, such as the Lauterbrunnen Valley, showcase the pronounced erosional impact of fluvioglacial activity over time.
- ○ Scouring action of meltwater on bedrock results in the formation of distinctive landforms like glacial troughs and hanging valleys. The erosional capacity of fluvioglacial processes is especially pronounced during periods of glacier retreat, as the sudden release of meltwater intensifies erosional activity along valley floors.
Depositional:
- ○ Sediment deposition occurs when the flow velocity decreases.
- ○ Outwash plains are extensive areas of sediment deposition in front of glaciers, created as meltwater streams lose energy and deposit gravel, sand, and silt.
- ○ Moraines, both lateral and medial, are prominent depositional features in fluvioglacial landscapes. Lateral moraines are formed at the sides of glaciers through the accumulation of debris, while medial moraines result from the merging of lateral moraines as tributary glaciers join together. The moraines act as key indicators of past glacier positions, and provide evidence of the transportation and deposition of material by fluvioglacial processes.
- ○ The importance varies depending on factors such as glacier size, climate, and the underlying geology. In regions with large glaciers and high erosive potential, such as Patagonia, erosional processes may dominate, carving deep valleys and fjords. Conversely, in areas with smaller glaciers and more sediment-laden meltwater, depositional features like outwash plains and moraines become more pronounced.
- ○ The temporal aspect also plays a crucial role in assessing relative importance. During periods of glacier advance, erosional processes tend to prevail as the glacier actively scours and shapes the landscape. In contrast, during periods of retreat, the focus shifts to depositional processes, resulting in the formation of distinctive landforms associated with sediment deposition.
Conclusion:
- ○ Both erosional and depositional processes are integral to the formation of fluvioglacial landscapes.
- ○ The relative importance of these processes is context-dependent, influenced by factors such as glacier size, climate, and temporal considerations.
- ○ The dynamic interaction between erosional and depositional forces results in the creation of diverse and distinctive landforms that characterise fluvioglacial environments, highlighting the complex and interconnected nature of these geomorphic processes.

AO1 = 5 / AO2 = 15

Level	Marks	Description
	0	No rewardable material.
1	1–5	Demonstrates isolated elements of geographical knowledge and understanding, some of which may be inaccurate or irrelevant. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical ideas, making limited and rarely logical connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce an interpretation with limited coherence and support from evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce an unsupported or generic conclusion, drawn from an argument that is unbalanced or lacks coherence. (AO2)
2	6–10	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is occasionally relevant and may include some inaccuracies. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas with limited but logical connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical ideas in order to produce a partial interpretation that is supported by some evidence but has limited coherence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to come to a conclusion, partially supported by an unbalanced argument with limited coherence. (AO2)
3	11–15	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is mostly relevant and accurate. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to find some logical and relevant connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical ideas in order to produce a partial but coherent interpretation that is supported by some evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to come to a conclusion, largely supported by an argument that may be unbalanced or partially coherent. (AO2)
4	16–20	Demonstrates accurate and relevant geographical knowledge and understanding throughout. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to find fully logical and relevant connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce a full and coherent interpretation that is supported by evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to come to a rational, substantiated conclusion, fully supported by a balanced argument that is drawn together coherently. (AO2)

Relevant content may include:

A clear understanding of the definition of a stakeholder – anyone with an interest in the area and recognition of diverse interests and perspectives.
A consideration of stakeholders as key actors in decision-making processes and the implementation of management strategies.
Local community engagement:
- ○ The involvement of residents in planning and decision-making processes.
- ○ Utilisation of local knowledge and expertise in identifying management approaches.
Economic stakeholders:
- ○ Engagement of businesses and industries dependent on glacial resources or tourism.
- ○ Consideration of economic interests in promoting sustainable practices.
Environmental organisations:
- ○ Collaboration with NGOs to promote conservation and sustainable use.
- ○ Incorporation of scientific research into management strategies.
Government agencies:
- ○ Coordination with governmental bodies responsible for regulation and planning.
- ○ Alignment with national and regional policies and priorities.
Intergovernmental organisations, especially in relation to climate change. For example, the UN, Madrid Protocol, Arctic Council, etc.
Include case studies.
Analysis (an examination of the challenges and lessons learned):
- ○ Challenges of stakeholder involvement: potential conflicts of interest and power dynamics; difficulty in achieving consensus and balancing priorities.
- ○ Benefits of stakeholder involvement: enhanced legitimacy and acceptance of decisions; improved effectiveness and sustainability of strategies.
An evaluation of stakeholder involvement in case study: an assessment of their contribution to effectiveness and sustainability; a consideration of limitations and drawbacks.

AO1 = 5 / AO2 = 15

Level	Marks	Description
	0	No rewardable material.
1	1–5	Demonstrates isolated elements of geographical knowledge and understanding, some of which may be inaccurate or irrelevant. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical ideas, making limited and rarely logical connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce an interpretation with limited coherence and support from evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce an unsupported or generic conclusion, drawn from an argument that is unbalanced or lacks coherence. (AO2)
2	6–10	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is occasionally relevant and may include some inaccuracies. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas with limited but logical connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical ideas in order to produce a partial interpretation that is supported by some evidence but has limited coherence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to come to a conclusion, partially supported by an unbalanced argument with limited coherence. (AO2)
3	11–15	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is mostly relevant and accurate. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to find some logical and relevant connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical ideas in order to produce a partial but coherent interpretation that is supported by some evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to come to a conclusion, largely supported by an argument that may be unbalanced or partially coherent. (AO2)
4	16–20	Demonstrates accurate and relevant geographical knowledge and understanding throughout. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to find fully logical and relevant connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce a full and coherent interpretation that is supported by evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to come to a rational, substantiated conclusion, fully supported by a balanced argument that is drawn together coherently. (AO2)

Relevant content may include:

Glacial erosion is the process by which glaciers shape the landscape through abrasion, plucking, and glacial transport.
Distinctive landforms created by glacial erosion:
- ○ Corries (cirques) – bowl-shaped depressions carved into mountainsides by glacier erosion. For example, Corrie Fee in the Cairngorms, Scotland.
- ○ Arêtes and pyramidal peaks – sharp ridges formed by glacial erosion where two corries have formed.
- ○ Pyramidal peaks – pointed mountain summits sculpted by multiple glaciers eroding from different sides. For example, the Matterhorn in the Swiss Alps.
- ○ U-shaped valleys – wide, steep-sided valleys carved by glaciers moving through pre-existing V-shaped valleys. For example, Yosemite Valley in California, USA.
- ○ Hanging valleys – smaller valleys formed above the main valley floor due to differential erosion by tributary glaciers. For example, Lauterbrunnen Valley in the Bernese Alps, Switzerland.
Significance of glacial erosion:
- ○ The formation of distinctive and visually striking landscapes.
- ○ Its influence on hydrology and drainage patterns.
- ○ The preservation of geological records of past glacial activity.
- ○ The importance of understanding glacial processes for interpreting landscape evolution and environmental management.

AO1 = 5 / AO2 = 15

Level	Marks	Description
	0	No rewardable material.
1	1–5	Demonstrates isolated elements of geographical knowledge and understanding, some of which may be inaccurate or irrelevant. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical ideas, making limited and rarely logical connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce an interpretation with limited coherence and support from evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce an unsupported or generic conclusion, drawn from an argument that is unbalanced or lacks coherence. (AO2)
2	6–10	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is occasionally relevant and may include some inaccuracies. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas with limited but logical connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical ideas in order to produce a partial interpretation that is supported by some evidence but has limited coherence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to come to a conclusion, partially supported by an unbalanced argument with limited coherence. (AO2)
3	11–15	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is mostly relevant and accurate. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to find some logical and relevant connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical ideas in order to produce a partial but coherent interpretation that is supported by some evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to come to a conclusion, largely supported by an argument that may be unbalanced or partially coherent. (AO2)
4	16–20	Demonstrates accurate and relevant geographical knowledge and understanding throughout. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to find fully logical and relevant connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce a full and coherent interpretation that is supported by evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to come to a rational, substantiated conclusion, fully supported by a balanced argument that is drawn together coherently. (AO2)

Relevant content may include:

Emphasise the importance of comprehensive risk assessments, infrastructure development, and community engagement in mitigating the impacts of avalanches and GLOFs.
The importance of managing glacial hazards:
- ○ The recognition of the significant risks posed by glacial hazards such as avalanches and GLOFs in upland environments.
- ○ An explanation of the need for effective management strategies to mitigate potential impacts on human lives, infrastructure, and ecosystems.
Assessment of current strategies:
- ○ An examination of existing strategies implemented to manage glacial hazards.
- ○ An evaluation of their effectiveness in reducing the frequency and magnitude of glacial hazard events.
- ○ The identification of challenges and limitations faced in managing glacial hazards, such as the unpredictable nature of avalanches.
- ○ An analysis of the role of stakeholder engagement in the effectiveness of management strategies, for example the importance of local community participation, governmental support, and collaboration with scientific experts and NGOs.
- ○ Case studies highlighting both successful and unsuccessful attempts to manage glacial hazards in upland environments could be examined.
- ○ A comparison of different approaches and their outcomes in various geographic contexts.
Assessment of effectiveness:
- ○ An evaluation of the overall effectiveness of strategies in reducing the risk and impact of glacial hazards, depending on any chosen case study.
- ○ Factors such as risk reduction, community resilience, and sustainability of management efforts could be considered.
Answers could also consider alternative approaches:
- ○ An exploration of alternative or complementary approaches to traditional hazard management, such as nature-based solutions, early warning systems, and land-use planning.
- ○ A discussion of their potential benefits and challenges compared to conventional strategies.
- ○ A consideration of future challenges and opportunities in managing glacial hazards in the context of climate change and evolving socio-economic conditions.
- ○ An emphasis on the importance of adaptive management approaches and continuous improvement in hazard mitigation efforts.
- ○ Reflection on the complexities and uncertainties involved in hazard management and the need for ongoing evaluation and adaptation of approaches.

Chapter 3

All exemplar answers given are likely to be in the top mark band.

All questions are level-marked.

AO1 = 3 / AO2 = 3

Level	Marks	Description
	0	No rewardable material.
1	1–2	Demonstrates isolated or generic elements of geographical knowledge and understanding, some of which may be inaccurate or irrelevant. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding to geographical information inconsistently. Connections/relationships between stimulus material and the question may be irrelevant. (AO2)
2	3–4	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is mostly relevant and may include some inaccuracies. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding to geographical information to find some relevant connections/relationships between stimulus material and the question. (AO2)
3	5–6	Demonstrates accurate and relevant geographical knowledge and understanding throughout. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding to geographical information logically to find fully relevant connections/relationships between stimulus material and the question. (AO2)

Relevant content may include:

AO1

Some people argue that hard engineering can negatively affect neighbouring coastlines and limits the ability of the coastline to respond naturally to changes in the coastal system.
Hard-engineering strategies directly affect the physical coastal processes. They are expensive, but effective at preventing coastal recession and protecting against flooding.
Groynes are structures built at right angles to the coast that stop longshore drift, trap sediment, and build up a beach, but they can lead to sediment starvation in other areas.
Rip rap consists of large boulders, commonly granite or concrete, placed along coastlines to absorb wave energy, but the boulders are unsightly.

AO2

The photograph shows rip rap, a hard-engineering strategy, in use on this coastline.
The photograph shows groynes being used along the beach.
The photograph shows a wide beach, which implies that the groynes have been successful in trapping sediment and building up the beach. This will protect the land behind.
If destructive waves were to reach the back of the beach, the rip rap will absorb the wave energy.

Example answer: Some people argue that hard engineering can negatively affect neighbouring coastlines and limits the ability of the coastline to respond naturally to changes in the coastal system. On the one hand, hard-engineering strategies will protect against the physical processes of erosion and prevent coastal recession, but on the other hand, they will alter the way that the coastline works as a natural system. Hard-engineering strategies directly affect the physical coastal processes. They are expensive, but effective at preventing coastal recession and protecting against flooding.

The photograph shows rip rap, a hard-engineering strategy, in use on this coastline. Also, it shows groynes being used along the beach. Groynes are structures built at right-angles to the coast that stop longshore drift, trap sediment, and build up a beach, but they can lead to sediment starvation in other areas. This is because they disrupt the natural transportation of sediment in the coastal system. The photograph shows a wide beach, which implies that the groynes have been successful in trapping sediment and building up the beach. This will protect the land behind. Rip rap consists of large boulders, commonly granite or concrete, placed along coastlines to absorb wave energy, but the boulders are unsightly. If destructive waves were to reach the back of the beach, the rip rap will absorb the wave energy and limit the impact of physical processes, such as erosion.

AO1 = 3 / AO2 = 3

Level	Marks	Description
	0	No rewardable material.
1	1–2	Demonstrates isolated or generic elements of geographical knowledge and understanding, some of which may be inaccurate or irrelevant. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding to geographical information inconsistently. Connections/relationships between stimulus material and the question may be irrelevant. (AO2)
2	3–4	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is mostly relevant and may include some inaccuracies. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding to geographical information to find some relevant connections/relationships between stimulus material and the question. (AO2)
3	5–6	Demonstrates accurate and relevant geographical knowledge and understanding throughout. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding to geographical information logically to find fully relevant connections/relationships between stimulus material and the question. (AO2)

Relevant content may include:

AO1

Soft-engineering strategies involve working with the physical processes and are a more natural form of coastal management.
Beach nourishment involves adding sediment to a beach to increase its ability to absorb the waves and protect the land behind.
Cliff regrading and drainage involves reducing the angle of the cliff to lower the risk of mass movement and drain water out.

AO2

The photograph shows a cliff that appears vulnerable to subaerial processes of weathering and mass movement.
There is a narrow beach, which means that destructive waves will attack the base of the cliff.
The geology of the cliff appears unstable.
Soft-engineering strategies that could be used here include beach nourishment and cliff regrading and drainage. There are no coastal ecosystems, such as salt marshes or sand dunes, to revegetate or stabilise.
Cliff regrading and drainage removes part of the cliff, and overextraction of water can increase its vulnerability to collapse.
If beach nourishment is used, sediment is continually transported away, and so needs constant replenishing.
The narrow beach and weak cliffs may benefit from hard-engineering strategies, such as groynes to create wider beaches, or a sea wall to protect the cliff from destructive waves.
The type of management used will depend on a cost-benefit analysis (CBA), which compares the economic cost of each policy (e.g. construction, maintenance) with the economic benefit (e.g. improving tourism, saving productive land).

AO1 = 3 / AO2 = 3

Level	Marks	Description
	0	No rewardable material.
1	1–2	Demonstrates isolated or generic elements of geographical knowledge and understanding, some of which may be inaccurate or irrelevant. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding to geographical information inconsistently. Connections/relationships between stimulus material and the question may be irrelevant. (AO2)
2	3–4	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is mostly relevant and may include some inaccuracies. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding to geographical information to find some relevant connections/relationships between stimulus material and the question. (AO2)
3	5–6	Demonstrates accurate and relevant geographical knowledge and understanding throughout. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding to geographical information logically to find fully relevant connections/relationships between stimulus material and the question. (AO2)

Relevant content may include:

AO1

Deposition occurs when waves lose their energy and drop the sediment that they are carrying.
Deposition processes produce spits, which can be stabilised by plant succession.
Longshore drift transports sediment along the coastline, in the direction of the prevailing wind. When the coastline changes direction (due to a bay, estuary, or indent), longshore drift continues to carry material out into the open sea. Sediment is deposited, and this process continues until the sediment is visible
above the water line. The area behind a spit is sheltered, and pioneer species may establish there, creating a salt marsh.
Spits are more common in areas with low tidal ranges.

AO2

The photograph shows a spit that has been colonised by thick vegetation.
The spit has been created by deposition, after the transportation process of longshore drift.
Constructive waves will be present due to the evidence of deposition.
The vegetation in the photograph has encouraged further deposition of sediment.
This spit may have formed across an estuary, as it has been cut off when the river current is too strong, allowing deposition to continue.
A secondary wind, or a change in wave direction, can create the recurved end.

AO1 = 3 / AO2 = 3

Level	Marks	Description
	0	No rewardable material.
1	1–2	Demonstrates isolated or generic elements of geographical knowledge and understanding, some of which may be inaccurate or irrelevant. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding to geographical information inconsistently. Connections/relationships between stimulus material and the question may be irrelevant. (AO2)
2	3–4	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is mostly relevant and may include some inaccuracies. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding to geographical information to find some relevant connections/relationships between stimulus material and the question. (AO2)
3	5–6	Demonstrates accurate and relevant geographical knowledge and understanding throughout. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding to geographical information logically to find fully relevant connections/relationships between stimulus material and the question. (AO2)

Relevant content may include:

AO1

Both lithology and rock type affect coastal morphology and landscapes.
On a discordant coastline, different rock types run perpendicular to the sea. They feature headlands and bays, created when softer rock strata are eroded to create bays and harder rock strata resist erosion to form headlands either side (differential erosion).
Geological structure (jointing, dip, faulting, folding) is an important influence on coastal morphology and the formation of cliff profiles.
The dip of a rock describes the angle between the horizontal and the rock strata. Rocks dipped towards the sea are vulnerable to landslides and create gently sloping cliffs. Rocks dipped towards the land produce vertical or steep cliffs, which are more stable.

AO2

The photograph shows a bay, with a headland in the foreground and in the background, a discordant coastline.
The photograph shows some steep cliffs where mass movement may have occurred.
The cliffs appear to be stabilised by vegetation growth.
The angle of dip may have affected the steepness of the cliff profiles. Steeper cliffs in the background may have rocks dipped towards the land.
The type of bedrock can influence the rate of coastal recession occurring in this landscape.

AO1 = 3 / AO2 = 3

Level	Marks	Description
	0	No rewardable material.
1	1–2	Demonstrates isolated or generic elements of geographical knowledge and understanding, some of which may be inaccurate or irrelevant. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding to geographical information inconsistently. Connections/relationships between stimulus material and the question may be irrelevant. (AO2)
2	3–4	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is mostly relevant and may include some inaccuracies. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding to geographical information to find some relevant connections/relationships between stimulus material and the question. (AO2)
3	5–6	Demonstrates accurate and relevant geographical knowledge and understanding throughout. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding to geographical information logically to find fully relevant connections/relationships between stimulus material and the question. (AO2)

Relevant content may include:

AO1

Beaches are an accumulation of deposited sediment.
Different wave types influence beach morphology and beach sediment profiles, which vary at a variety of temporal scales from short-term (daily) through to longer periods.
Destructive waves remove material from the beach and decrease the gradient of the beach profile.
Constructive waves build up a beach and increase the gradient of the beach profile.
The energy of waves varies seasonally.
Transportation processes (longshore drift) and plant succession also play a role in beach morphology, although there is no evidence of this in the photograph.

AO2

The photograph shows a beach, at the back of which are cliffs.
The beach is shingle, which influences its steeper gradient. Shingle beaches have a steeper gradient than sand beaches as percolation is more rapid, leaving less backwash.
There is evidence of strand lines on the beach. Features such as these on beach profiles reflect the daily changes in swash and backwash. Berms are ridges of sediment that run parallel along the beach and mark the furthest extent of each high tide.
The beach appears to have a gentle gradient. Therefore, the photograph could be taken in the winter when high-energy waves are more common, reducing the gradient of the beach profile. Low-energy waves are more common in the summer, building up the beach and increasing the beach gradient.

AO1 = 3 / AO2 = 3

Level	Marks	Description
	0	No rewardable material.
1	1–2	Demonstrates isolated or generic elements of geographical knowledge and understanding, some of which may be inaccurate or irrelevant. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding to geographical information inconsistently. Connections/relationships between stimulus material and the question may be irrelevant. (AO2)
2	3–4	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is mostly relevant and may include some inaccuracies. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding to geographical information to find some relevant connections/relationships between stimulus material and the question. (AO2)
3	5–6	Demonstrates accurate and relevant geographical knowledge and understanding throughout. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding to geographical information logically to find fully relevant connections/relationships between stimulus material and the question. (AO2)

Relevant content may include:

AO1

Longer-term sea level changes result from a complex interplay of factors, including both eustatic (ice formation/melting, thermal changes) and isostatic (post-glacial adjustment, subsidence, accretion, and tectonics).
Eustatic sea level change is a global change in the volume of water in the ocean.
It is responsible for historic and contemporary sea level change.

AO2

Future sea level change is expected to vary globally but many areas will experience regional mean sea level rise.
It is likely that eustatic changes are causing the global sea level rise, due to climate change and global warming leading to ice melting and thermal changes.
Temperatures increase, the ice stored in ice sheets and ice caps melts, and sea level rises.
Warmer temperatures also lead to thermal expansion, where the water volume increases, and sea level rises.

AO1 = 3 / AO2 = 3

Level	Marks	Description
	0	No rewardable material.
1	1–2	Demonstrates isolated or generic elements of geographical knowledge and understanding, some of which may be inaccurate or irrelevant. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding to geographical information inconsistently. Connections/relationships between stimulus material and the question may be irrelevant. (AO2)
2	3–4	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is mostly relevant and may include some inaccuracies. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding to geographical information to find some relevant connections/relationships between stimulus material and the question. (AO2)
3	5–6	Demonstrates accurate and relevant geographical knowledge and understanding throughout. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding to geographical information logically to find fully relevant connections/relationships between stimulus material and the question. (AO2)

Relevant content may include:

AO1

Erosional processes (hydraulic action, corrosion, abrasion, attrition) create distinctive coastal landforms (the cave-arch-stack-stump sequence).
Geological structure (jointing, dip, faulting, folding) is an important influence on coastal morphology and erosion rates.
Differential erosion of alternating strata in cliffs (permeable/impermeable, resistant/less resistant) produces complex cliff profiles.

AO2

The photograph shows a stack surrounded by cliffs and headlands.
Geological weaknesses are visible. They will begin the process of the stack formation sequence and influence the rate of erosion.
There are four main erosional processes that will contribute to the creation of the landform in the photograph: hydraulic action, corrosion, abrasion, and attrition.
The impact of erosional processes is influenced by waves (destructive waves have more erosional power) and lithology (weaker rocks are more susceptible to erosion).
Waves attack geological weaknesses in a headland such as joints and cracks. Geological weaknesses are eroded easily, and widen and deepen to form a cave. Back-to-back caves eventually join and break through the headland to form an arch. Continued erosion at the base of the arch and subaerial processes on the roof cause the arch to collapse. A tall, isolated pillar of rock stands separate from the headland, which has retreated. Erosion at the base of the stack can create a notch which is unable to support the weight above, so the stack collapses to form a stump, which may only be visible at low tide.
Subaerial processes, weathering and mass movement, have also played a role in the creation of the stack (arch collapse).
There is some evidence of erosional processes on the surrounding cliffs and headlands.

AO1 = 3 / AO2 = 3

Level	Marks	Description
	0	No rewardable material.
1	1–2	Demonstrates isolated or generic elements of geographical knowledge and understanding, some of which may be inaccurate or irrelevant. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding to geographical information inconsistently. Connections/relationships between stimulus material and the question may be irrelevant. (AO2)
2	3–4	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is mostly relevant and may include some inaccuracies. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding to geographical information to find some relevant connections/relationships between stimulus material and the question. (AO2)
3	5–6	Demonstrates accurate and relevant geographical knowledge and understanding throughout. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding to geographical information logically to find fully relevant connections/relationships between stimulus material and the question. (AO2)

Relevant content may include:

AO1

Vegetation is important in stabilising sandy coastlines through dune successional development and salt marsh successional development in estuarine areas.
Transportation and deposition processes produce distinctive coastal landforms (beaches, recurved and double spits, offshore bars, barrier beaches and bars, tombolos and cuspatе forelands), which can be stabilised by plant succession.
Deposition occurs when waves lose their energy and drop the sediment that they are carrying.

AO2

The photograph shows a salt marsh with channels or creeks of brackish water.
The vegetation appears to be a species of grass, such as cord grass, eel grass, or sea lavender.
The photograph may be taken behind a spit where the area is sheltered and pioneer species may establish there, creating a salt marsh.
The roots of vegetation in salt marshes trap sediments and stabilise their structures.
Salt marshes are formed in sheltered areas of coastline such as estuaries and bays. The first plants to grow in salt marshes are small pioneer plants and algae. Both help to bind the mud and clays together and trap sediment. Halophytes (salt-tolerant) plants establish themselves next and decompose to add organic matter to the soil. Over time, a wider variety of plants will be able to survive in the salt marsh.
Salt marsh succession has played a key role in the establishment of this landscape, as well as deposition.

AO1 = 8

Level	Marks	Description
	0	No rewardable material.
1	1–2	Demonstrates isolated elements of geographical knowledge and understanding, some of which may be inaccurate or irrelevant. (AO1) Understanding addresses a narrow range of geographical ideas, which lack detail. (AO1)
2	3–5	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is mostly relevant and may include some inaccuracies. (AO1) Understanding addresses a range of geographical ideas, which are not fully detailed and/or developed. (AO1)
3	6–8	Demonstrates accurate and relevant geographical knowledge and understanding throughout. (AO1) Understanding addresses a broad range of geographical ideas, which are detailed and fully developed. (AO1)

Relevant content may include:

Coasts can be classified by using longer-term criteria such as geology and changes of sea level or shorter-term processes such as inputs from rivers, waves, and tides.
Geology:
- ○ Coasts can be classified based on their rock type and structure.
- ○ Concordant coastlines are those where different rock types are parallel to the shoreline.
- ○ Discordant coastlines are those where different rock types are perpendicular to the shoreline.
- ○ Rocky coasts are formed by more resistant rocks as they can withstand physical processes.
Changes of sea level:
- ○ Long-term changes in sea level can create distinctive coastlines.
- ○ Rises in sea level can create submergent coastlines with landforms such as rias (submerged river valleys) and fjords (submerged glacial valleys).
- ○ A fall in sea level can create emergent coastlines where features such as relict cliffs and raised beaches can be found.
Waves:
- ○ The power of the waves can influence the processes and landforms that occur.
- ○ A high-energy environment is characterised by powerful, destructive waves and high rates of erosion.
- ○ A low-energy environment has a higher rate of deposition due to less powerful, constructive waves for most of the year, and is more likely to be a sandy and estuarine coast.
Tidal range:
- ○ The tidal range influences the area that is affected by wave action.
- ○ Some coastlines have small tidal ranges (more enclosed coasts, such as those in the Baltic Sea) and some have much larger tidal ranges (such as those in the UK).
Rivers:
- ○ They are a main source of sediment input for the coastline.
- ○ Rivers with large loads can create different types of deltas.
- ○ Periodic increases in sediment discharge, such as during storms, can create depositional features, such as bars.

Example answer: Coasts can be classified by using longer term criteria such as geology and changes of sea level. Coasts can be classified based on their rock type and structure. Concordant coastlines are those where different rock types are parallel to the shoreline. Discordant coastlines are those where different rock types are perpendicular to the shoreline. Rocky coasts are formed by more resistant rocks as they can withstand physical processes such as marine erosion. Long term changes in sea level can create distinctive coastlines. A rise in sea level can create submergent coastlines with landforms such as rias (submerged river valleys) and fjords (submerged glacial valleys). A fall in sea level can create emergent coastlines where features such as relict cliffs and raised beaches can be found. Coasts can also be classified by using shorter term processes such as inputs from rivers, waves and tides. The power of the waves can influence the processes and landforms that take place. A high-energy environment is characterised by powerful, destructive waves and high rates of erosion. A low-energy environment has a higher rate of deposition due to less powerful, constructive waves for most of the year and are more likely to be sandy and estuarine coasts. The tidal range influences the area which is affected by wave action. Some coastlines have small tidal ranges (more enclosed coasts like in the Baltic Sea), some have much larger tidal ranges (such as those in the UK). Rivers are a main source of sediment input for the coastline. Rivers with large loads can create different types of deltas. Periodic increases in sediment discharge, such as during storms, can create depositional features, such as bars.

AO1 = 8

Level	Marks	Description
	0	No rewardable material.
1	1–2	Demonstrates isolated elements of geographical knowledge and understanding, some of which may be inaccurate or irrelevant. (AO1) Understanding addresses a narrow range of geographical ideas, which lack detail. (AO1)
2	3–5	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is mostly relevant and may include some inaccuracies. (AO1) Understanding addresses a range of geographical ideas, which are not fully detailed and/or developed. (AO1)
3	6–8	Demonstrates accurate and relevant geographical knowledge and understanding throughout. (AO1) Understanding addresses a broad range of geographical ideas, which are detailed and fully developed. (AO1)

Relevant content may include:

Coastal management increasingly uses the concept of littoral cells to manage extended areas of coastline. Throughout the world, countries are developing schemes that are sustainable and use holistic ICZM strategies.
ICZM involves all stakeholders and takes their views and needs into account. It ensures that approaches in one area of the littoral cell do not have negative impacts elsewhere, and that management is long-term, sustainable, and allows for changes in economic development as the threats to coastal areas develop.
With any policy decisions, there will be conflict between different players as their attitudes towards coastal management vary. Therefore, it is important that an ICZM takes all these views into account to avoid conflict.
Shoreline management policy decisions (no active intervention, strategic realignment, hold the line, advance the line) are based on complex judgements (engineering feasibility, environmental sensitivity, land value, political and social reasons). Cost-benefit analysis (CBA) and Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) are used as part of the decision-making process.
An ICZM undertakes important assessments to understand the impact of the management.
An EIA assesses the likely consequences of the management on the environment (e.g. biodiversity, soil, water, climate, people’s health).
A CBA compares the economic cost of each policy (e.g. construction, maintenance) with the economic benefit (e.g. improving tourism, saving productive land).

Example answer: Coastal management increasingly uses the concept of littoral cells to manage extended areas of coastline. Throughout the world, countries are developing schemes that are sustainable and use holistic ICZM strategies. ICZM involves all stakeholders and takes their views and needs into account. It ensures that approaches in one area of the littoral cell do not have negative impacts elsewhere, and that management is long-term, sustainable, and allows for changes in economic development as the threats to coastal areas develop. With any policy decisions, there will be conflict between different players as their attitudes towards coastal management vary. Therefore, it is important that an ICZM takes all these views into account to avoid conflict.

Shoreline management policy decisions (no active intervention, strategic realignment, hold the line, advance the line) are based on complex judgements (engineering feasibility, environmental sensitivity, land value, political and social reasons). Cost-benefit analysis (CBA) and Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) are used as part of the decision-making process. An ICZM undertakes important assessments to understand the impact of the management. An EIA assesses the likely consequences of the management on the environment (e.g. biodiversity, soil, water, climate, people’s health). A CBA compares the economic cost of each policy (e.g. construction, maintenance) with the economic benefit (e.g. improving tourism, saving productive land).

AO1 = 8

Level	Marks	Description
	0	No rewardable material.
1	1–2	Demonstrates isolated elements of geographical knowledge and understanding, some of which may be inaccurate or irrelevant. (AO1) Understanding addresses a narrow range of geographical ideas, which lack detail. (AO1)
2	3–5	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is mostly relevant and may include some inaccuracies. (AO1) Understanding addresses a range of geographical ideas, which are not fully detailed and/or developed. (AO1)
3	6–8	Demonstrates accurate and relevant geographical knowledge and understanding throughout. (AO1) Understanding addresses a broad range of geographical ideas, which are detailed and fully developed. (AO1)

Relevant content may include:

Geology has two aspects: lithology (the geological structure of a rock) and rock type.
Geological structure is responsible for the formation of concordant and discordant coasts.
At concordant coastlines, different rock types run parallel to the sea.
The Dalmatian type of concordant coastline has long islands and coastal inlets which lie parallel to the coastline. They are commonly high-energy, submergent coastlines. The Haff type has lagoons which are created by spits that form parallel to the coast.
At discordant coastlines, different rock types run perpendicular to the sea. They feature headlands and bays, created when softer rock strata are eroded to create bays and harder rock strata resists erosion to form headlands either side (differential erosion).
Layers within rock can become folded due to tectonic movement. In anticlines, the folds move upwards, so the oldest rocks are in the centre. In synclines, the rocks fold downwards so the youngest rocks are in the centre.
Joints and faults are fractures in rocks which create points of weakness that are vulnerable to weathering and erosional processes. They can be exploited to form wave-cut notches and caves in the cliff.
The dip of a rock describes the angle between the horizontal and the rock strata. Rocks dipped towards the sea are vulnerable to landslides and create gently sloping cliffs. Rocks dipped towards the land produce vertical or steep cliffs that are more stable.
Layers of less resistant strata within the rock erode more easily into wave-cut notches. Permeable rocks are less resistant to weathering processes. A permeable layer of rock above an impermeable layer will become saturated with water and more susceptible to mass movement.

AO1 = 8

Level	Marks	Description
	0	No rewardable material.
1	1–2	Demonstrates isolated elements of geographical knowledge and understanding, some of which may be inaccurate or irrelevant. (AO1) Understanding addresses a narrow range of geographical ideas, which lack detail. (AO1)
2	3–5	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is mostly relevant and may include some inaccuracies. (AO1) Understanding addresses a range of geographical ideas, which are not fully detailed and/or developed. (AO1)
3	6–8	Demonstrates accurate and relevant geographical knowledge and understanding throughout. (AO1) Understanding addresses a broad range of geographical ideas, which are detailed and fully developed. (AO1)

Relevant content may include:

Bedrock lithology (igneous, sedimentary, metamorphic) and unconsolidated material (boulder clay) geology are important in understanding rates of coastal recession.
Igneous bedrock (e.g. basalt and granite) is formed by molten rock which has cooled and solidified either on Earth’s surface (extrusive) or underground (intrusive) and is impermeable with few faults. Igneous rocks are highly resistant to marine erosion and weathering, leading to slow rates of coastal recession.
Sedimentary bedrock (e.g. limestone and sandstone) is formed from sediments which have become compacted to form rocks with a layered structure and is permeable with many bedding planes. Sedimentary rocks are susceptible to chemical weathering such as carbonation and less resistant to marine erosion, leading to fast rates of coastal recession.
Metamorphic bedrock (e.g. slate and gneiss) is formed when rocks are subject to heat and pressure, altering them into different rocks with crystalline structures, and is impermeable. Metamorphic rocks more resistant to marine erosion and weathering, leading to slow rates of coastal recession.
Unconsolidated bedrock (e.g. boulder clay) is a mixture of rock material formed by the deposition of sediment carried by glaciers (till). It is very easily eroded and weathered, so leads to fast rates of coastal recession.
There are other influences, such as cliff strata, vegetation, human activity, wind direction/fetch, tides, seasons, weather systems, and the occurrence of storms.

AO1 = 8

Level	Marks	Description
	0	No rewardable material.
1	1–2	Demonstrates isolated elements of geographical knowledge and understanding, some of which may be inaccurate or irrelevant. (AO1) Understanding addresses a narrow range of geographical ideas, which lack detail. (AO1)
2	3–5	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is mostly relevant and may include some inaccuracies. (AO1) Understanding addresses a range of geographical ideas, which are not fully detailed and/or developed. (AO1)
3	6–8	Demonstrates accurate and relevant geographical knowledge and understanding throughout. (AO1) Understanding addresses a broad range of geographical ideas, which are detailed and fully developed. (AO1)

Relevant content may include:

The impact of erosional processes is influenced by waves (destructive waves have more erosional power) and lithology (weaker rocks are more susceptible to erosion).
Erosional processes include:
- ○ hydraulic action – waves force air into the cracks in cliffs; the repeated increase in pressure will force cracks to widen and break pieces off the cliff.
- ○ corrosion – a chemical process where limestone is dissolved by carbonic acid in seawater; it is the only erosional process that is not more effective under storm conditions.
- ○ abrasion – sediment that is carried by the waves is thrown at the cliffs and wears the cliff face away.
- ○ attrition – sediment that is carried in the waves knocks against each other, breaking parts of the rock down and creating smoother, smaller, and rounder particles.
Erosion can create distinctive landforms: cliffs, headlands and bays, wave-cut notches and platforms, and stacks.
Stack formation: waves attack geological weaknesses in a headland, such as joints and cracks. Geological weaknesses are eroded easily and widen and deepen to form a cave. Back-to-back caves eventually join and break through the headland to form an arch. Continued erosion at the base of the arch and subaerial processes on the roof cause the arch to collapse. A tall, isolated pillar of rock stands separate from the headland, which has retreated. Erosion at the base of the stack can create a notch which is unable to support the weight above, so the stack collapses to form a stump which may only be visible at low tide.
Wave-cut platform formation: waves attack cliffs between the high and low tide marks, forming a wave-cut notch. Continued undercutting creates an overhang. The unsupported overhang will eventually collapse, and the cliff has retreated. Fallen debris is removed from the base of the cliff by wave action. A wide, gently sloping platform is left behind at the base of the cliff, which is covered at high tide.

AO1 = 8

Level	Marks	Description
	0	No rewardable material.
1	1–2	Demonstrates isolated elements of geographical knowledge and understanding, some of which may be inaccurate or irrelevant. (AO1) Understanding addresses a narrow range of geographical ideas, which lack detail. (AO1)
2	3–5	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is mostly relevant and may include some inaccuracies. (AO1) Understanding addresses a range of geographical ideas, which are not fully detailed and/or developed. (AO1)
3	6–8	Demonstrates accurate and relevant geographical knowledge and understanding throughout. (AO1) Understanding addresses a broad range of geographical ideas, which are detailed and fully developed. (AO1)

Relevant content may include:

Coasts can be viewed as open systems with inputs, processes, and outputs.
Inputs include energy from wind and waves, and sources of sediment (eroded sediment, sediment from weathering and mass movement, river sediment).
Processes include flows; transfer of sediment by longshore drift, swash and backwash; stores of sediment, such as depositional landforms (e.g. beaches).
Outputs are the removal of sediment to the ocean by currents, and evaporation.
Coastal sediment cells can be viewed as closed systems. The coastline of England and Wales is divided into 11 stretches of coastline called sediment cells. For example, sediment cell five runs between Portland Bill to Selsey Bill on the south coast of England and has seven sub-cells.
Sediment cells have sources of sediment, transfers of sediment, and sediment sinks (depositional landforms).
Sediment theoretically stays within each cell, with no transfer between one cell and its neighbour.
The system can be in dynamic equilibrium, meaning that the inputs and outputs are equal, but the system is still in a state of change. In other words, sediment accumulation happens at the same rate as it is removed.
Positive feedback is when a change in the coastal system leads to a further change. For example, an increase in wave energy will lead to an increase in erosion.
Negative feedback is when a change in the coastal system leads to a change that returns the system to equilibrium. For example, an increase in deposition will steepen the beach profile, encouraging the formation of destructive waves which will flatten the beach.

AO1 = 8

Level	Marks	Description
	0	No rewardable material.
1	1–2	Demonstrates isolated elements of geographical knowledge and understanding, some of which may be inaccurate or irrelevant. (AO1) Understanding addresses a narrow range of geographical ideas, which lack detail. (AO1)
2	3–5	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is mostly relevant and may include some inaccuracies. (AO1) Understanding addresses a range of geographical ideas, which are not fully detailed and/or developed. (AO1)
3	6–8	Demonstrates accurate and relevant geographical knowledge and understanding throughout. (AO1) Understanding addresses a broad range of geographical ideas, which are detailed and fully developed. (AO1)

Relevant content may include:

Physical factors cause coastal recession.
Geological factors: softer, weaker rock is more easily eroded. Rocks with more geological weaknesses, such as joints, are more easily exploited by erosional processes. Rocks dipped towards the sea are less stable, so more vulnerable to mass movement.
Subaerial factors: material at the coastline that is loosened by weathering is more vulnerable to mass movement. For example, blockfalls of material loosened by freeze-thaw can occur, leading to cliff retreat. Heavy rainfall can also trigger landslides.
Marine factors: destructive waves that break at the foot of a cliff have more energy to erode. High-energy waves, created in high winds and with long fetches, have more erosive power. A narrow beach will be unable to dissipate wave energy as well as a wide, flat beach. Wave refraction will cause wave energy to be concentrated around headlands and dissipated in bays.
Rates of recession are not constant and are subject to short- and long-term influences (wind direction/fetch, tides, seasons, weather systems, and the occurrence of storms).

AO1 = 8

Level	Marks	Description
	0	No rewardable material.
1	1–2	Demonstrates isolated elements of geographical knowledge and understanding, some of which may be inaccurate or irrelevant. (AO1) Understanding addresses a narrow range of geographical ideas, which lack detail. (AO1)
2	3–5	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is mostly relevant and may include some inaccuracies. (AO1) Understanding addresses a range of geographical ideas, which are not fully detailed and/or developed. (AO1)
3	6–8	Demonstrates accurate and relevant geographical knowledge and understanding throughout. (AO1) Understanding addresses a broad range of geographical ideas, which are detailed and fully developed. (AO1)

Relevant content may include:

Hard-engineering approaches directly affect the physical coastal processes. They are expensive, but effective at preventing coastal recession and protecting against flooding.
Groynes stop longshore drift, trap sediment, and build up a beach, but can lead to sediment starvation in other areas.
Sea walls can be recurved and repel wave energy to protect the coastline from destructive waves, but are large and unsightly.
Rip rap comprises large boulders, commonly granite or concrete, placed along coastlines to absorb wave energy, but the boulders are unsightly.
Revetments are often wooden frames placed at the back of a beach to absorb wave energy, but they need frequent maintenance.
An offshore breakwater is a structure in the sea that is parallel to the shore. It reduces the power of incoming waves, but can reduce the amount of sediment reaching the beach.
Some people argue that hard engineering can negatively affect neighbouring coastlines and limits the ability of the coastline to respond naturally to changes in the coastal system. No one approach suits all coastlines and there is conflict over which approach is best.
Hard engineering may be part of a shoreline management plan (SMP) or holistic integrated coastal zone management (ICZM), which manage extended areas of coastline.

AO1 = 8

Level	Marks	Description
	0	No rewardable material.
1	1–2	Demonstrates isolated elements of geographical knowledge and understanding, some of which may be inaccurate or irrelevant. (AO1) Understanding addresses a narrow range of geographical ideas, which lack detail. (AO1)
2	3–5	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is mostly relevant and may include some inaccuracies. (AO1) Understanding addresses a range of geographical ideas, which are not fully detailed and/or developed. (AO1)
3	6–8	Demonstrates accurate and relevant geographical knowledge and understanding throughout. (AO1) Understanding addresses a broad range of geographical ideas, which are detailed and fully developed. (AO1)

Relevant content may include:

Coastal management increasingly uses the concept of littoral cells to manage extended areas of coastline. Throughout the world, countries are developing schemes that are sustainable and use holistic ICZM strategies.
ICZM involves all stakeholders and take their views and needs into account. It ensures that approaches in one area of the littoral cell do not have negative impacts elsewhere, and that management is long-term, sustainable, and allows for changes in economic development as the threats to coastal areas develop.
With any policy decisions, there will be conflict between different players as their attitudes towards coastal management vary. Therefore, it is important that an ICZM takes all these views into account to avoid conflict.
Shoreline management policy decisions (no active intervention, strategic realignment, hold the line, advance the line) are based on complex judgements (engineering feasibility, environmental sensitivity, land value, political and social reasons). Cost-benefit analysis (CBA) and Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) are used as part of the decision-making process.
An ICZM undertakes important assessments to understand the impact of the management.
An EIA assesses the likely consequences of the management on the environment (e.g. biodiversity, soil, water, climate, people’s health).
A CBA compares the economic cost of each policy (e.g. construction, maintenance) with the economic benefit (e.g. improving tourism, saving productive land).

AO1 = 5 / AO2 = 15

Level	Marks	Description
	0	No rewardable material.
1	1–5	Demonstrates isolated elements of geographical knowledge and understanding, some of which may be inaccurate or irrelevant. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical ideas, making limited and rarely logical connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce an interpretation with limited coherence and support from evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce an unsupported or generic conclusion, drawn from an argument that is unbalanced or lacks coherence. (AO2)
2	6–10	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is occasionally relevant and may include some inaccuracies. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas with limited but logical connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical ideas in order to produce a partial interpretation that is supported by some evidence but has limited coherence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to come to a conclusion, partially supported by an unbalanced argument with limited coherence. (AO2)
3	11–15	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is mostly relevant and accurate. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to find some logical and relevant connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical ideas in order to produce a partial but coherent interpretation that is supported by some evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to come to a conclusion, largely supported by an argument that may be unbalanced or partially coherent. (AO2)
4	16–20	Demonstrates accurate and relevant geographical knowledge and understanding throughout. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to find fully logical and relevant connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce a full and coherent interpretation that is supported by evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to come to a rational, substantiated conclusion, fully supported by a balanced argument that is drawn together coherently. (AO2)

Relevant content may include:

AO1

Local factors increase flood risk on some low-lying and estuarine coasts (height, degree of subsidence, vegetation removal); global sea level rise further increases risk (e.g. Bangladesh or the Maldives).
Storm surge events can lead to severe coastal flooding with dramatic short-term impacts (depressions, tropical cyclones).
Longer-term sea level changes result from a complex interplay of factors, including both eustatic (ice formation/melting, thermal changes) and isostatic (post glacial adjustment, subsidence, accretion, and tectonics).

AO2

There are many local factors which are very influential in increasing the flood risk on coastlines.
Places that are higher above sea level have a lower risk of coastal flooding and can be subject to much local variation (e.g. land topography).
Human activity, such as the extraction of groundwater, can lead to land subsidence, increasing its vulnerability to flooding (e.g. Jakarta in Indonesia).
Removing vegetation and its roots from coastlines can destabilise landforms such as sand dunes, and destroy ecosystems such as mangrove forests, which provide natural protection from flooding.
Storm surges are short-term increases in sea level which can be caused by depressions (areas of low pressure) and tropical cyclones (a rapidly rotating storm system with very low air pressure). The low air pressure ‘pulls’ the sea level up, and strong winds create large waves and push the water towards the coast. When Hurricane Katrina hit the USA in 2005, the storm surge was over 8 metres and overtopped existing coastal protection, flooding 80% of the city of New Orleans.
There are also global factors affecting coastal flood risk.
Future predicted sea level rise will exacerbate the risk, particularly for low-lying areas, such as the Maldives, where much of the land is already less than 5 metres above sea level and is at risk of becoming uninhabitable in the future.
Sea level rise is a global phenomenon, caused by a global change in the volume of water in the ocean (eustatic changes), rather than local (isostatic).
Temperatures increase, the ice stored in ice sheets and ice caps melts, and sea level rises. Warmer temperatures also lead to thermal expansion, where the water volume increases, and sea level rises.
Both local and global factors affect the flood risk on coastlines. The extent to which the coastal flood risk is due to local factors will depend on the specific coastline being discussed, as well as considering the short-term or the long-term. Many global factors depend on the future, which is uncertain, and can change due to human action against climate change. The extent to which these factors will affect flood risk will also depend on human action to prevent and manage coastal flooding.

Example answer: There are many local factors which are very influential in increasing the flood risk on coastlines. Land topography can influence flooding as places that are higher above sea level have a lower risk of coastal flooding. Human activity, such as the extraction of groundwater, can lead to land subsidence, increasing its vulnerability to flooding. For example, in Jakarta in Indonesia, less than half the city’s population has access to piped water, and so the illegal extraction of groundwater to fulfil water requirements has caused subsidence, resulting in some parts of northern Jakarta sinking four metres in the last twenty years. Other human activities such as removing vegetation and its roots from coastlines can destabilise landforms such as sand dunes, and destroy ecosystems such as mangrove forests, which provide natural protection from flooding.

Other local factors include storm surges, which are short-term increases in sea level which can be caused by depressions (areas of low pressure) and tropical cyclones (a rapidly rotating storm system with very low air pressure). The low air pressure ‘pulls’ the sea level up, and strong winds create large waves and push the water towards the coast. For example, when Hurricane Katrina hit the USA in 2005, the storm surge was over 8 metres and overtopped existing coastal protection, flooding 80% of the city of New Orleans.

There are also global factors affecting coastal flood risk. Future predicted sea level rise will exacerbate flood risk, particularly for low-lying areas (such as the Maldives) where much of the land is already less than 5 metres above sea level and is at risk of becoming uninhabitable in the future. Sea level rise is a global phenomenon, caused by eustatic changes (a global change in the volume of water in the ocean), rather than isostatic changes (local changes to sea level). As temperatures increase, the ice stored in ice sheets and ice caps melts, and sea level rises. Warmer temperatures also lead to thermal expansion, where the water volume increases, and sea level rises.

Both local and global factors affect the flood risk on coastlines. The extent to which the coastal flood risk is due to local factors will depend on the specific coastline being discussed, as well as considering the short-term or the long-term. Many global factors depend on the future, which is uncertain, and can change due to human action against climate change. The extent to which these factors will affect flood risk will also depend on human action to prevent and manage coastal flooding.

AO1 = 5 / AO2 = 15

Level	Marks	Description
	0	No rewardable material.
1	1–5	Demonstrates isolated elements of geographical knowledge and understanding, some of which may be inaccurate or irrelevant. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical ideas, making limited and rarely logical connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce an interpretation with limited coherence and support from evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce an unsupported or generic conclusion, drawn from an argument that is unbalanced or lacks coherence. (AO2)
2	6–10	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is occasionally relevant and may include some inaccuracies. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas with limited but logical connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical ideas in order to produce a partial interpretation that is supported by some evidence but has limited coherence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to come to a conclusion, partially supported by an unbalanced argument with limited coherence. (AO2)
3	11–15	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is mostly relevant and accurate. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to find some logical and relevant connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical ideas in order to produce a partial but coherent interpretation that is supported by some evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to come to a conclusion, largely supported by an argument that may be unbalanced or partially coherent. (AO2)
4	16–20	Demonstrates accurate and relevant geographical knowledge and understanding throughout. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to find fully logical and relevant connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce a full and coherent interpretation that is supported by evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to come to a rational, substantiated conclusion, fully supported by a balanced argument that is drawn together coherently. (AO2)

Relevant content may include:

AO1

Increasing risks of coastal recession and coastal flooding have serious consequences for affected communities.
Economic losses (housing, businesses, agricultural land, infrastructure) and social losses (relocation, loss of livelihood, amenity value) from coastal recession can be significant, especially in areas of dense coastal developments.
Coastal flooding and storm surge events can have serious economic and social consequences for coastal communities in both developing and developed countries.
Climate change may create environmental refugees in coastal areas.

AO2

The consequences of coastal recession and flooding can be significant, especially in areas of high coastal populations.
Properties and businesses can be completely destroyed by cliff collapse or flooding. Homeowners whose homes are at risk may struggle to insure properties. Homeowners may find themselves in negative equity as properties at increasing risk will lose their value.
Agricultural land can be lost to flooding, or allowed to flood to manage the retreat of the coastline.
Transport infrastructure is at risk. In 2014, storm winds and high sea levels washed away 80 metres of train track along the coastal path in Dawlish, UK.
In the UK, 35 power stations, 22 water facilities, and 91 sewage works are at risk from coastal flooding.
There are also social consequences.
Recreational uses of the coastline will be affected if beaches and facilities disappear.
Social and political tensions could arise over how to manage or cope with the risks.
The wellbeing of a community could be affected as people are forced to relocate.
Businesses or agricultural land that is destroyed will affect people’s livelihoods. Areas could become less attractive to locals and tourists if infrastructure is at risk or destroyed.
Environmental refugees will be forced to flee their homes as the effects of climate change put more coastal communities at risk from flooding and storm surges. For example, sea level rise could create over 20 million refugees as Bangladesh will lose 17% of its land by 2050.
The consequences of coastal recession are both social and economic. There may be other impacts too, such as political and environmental consequences.
The degree to which the losses are mainly economic varies by level of development of the area, which is affected, the rate of recession, the management type and effectiveness in place, the size of population affected, and the land use in the affected area.

AO1 = 5 / AO2 = 15

Level	Marks	Description
	0	No rewardable material.
1	1–5	Demonstrates isolated elements of geographical knowledge and understanding, some of which may be inaccurate or irrelevant. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical ideas, making limited and rarely logical connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce an interpretation with limited coherence and support from evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce an unsupported or generic conclusion, drawn from an argument that is unbalanced or lacks coherence. (AO2)
2	6–10	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is occasionally relevant and may include some inaccuracies. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas with limited but logical connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical ideas in order to produce a partial interpretation that is supported by some evidence but has limited coherence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to come to a conclusion, partially supported by an unbalanced argument with limited coherence. (AO2)
3	11–15	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is mostly relevant and accurate. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to find some logical and relevant connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical ideas in order to produce a partial but coherent interpretation that is supported by some evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to come to a conclusion, largely supported by an argument that may be unbalanced or partially coherent. (AO2)
4	16–20	Demonstrates accurate and relevant geographical knowledge and understanding throughout. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to find fully logical and relevant connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce a full and coherent interpretation that is supported by evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to come to a rational, substantiated conclusion, fully supported by a balanced argument that is drawn together coherently. (AO2)

Relevant content may include:

AO1

Sustainable management is designed to cope with future threats (increased storm events, rising sea levels) but its implementation can lead to local conflicts in many countries.
Hard-engineering approaches (groynes, sea walls, rip rap, revetments, offshore breakwaters) are economically costly and directly alter physical processes and systems.
Soft-engineering approaches (beach nourishment, cliff regrading and drainage, dune stabilisation) attempt to work with physical systems and processes to protect coasts and manage risks caused by changes in sea level.

AO2

Sustainable coastal management involves protecting the coastline from erosion, inundation from floodwater, conserving coastal ecosystems and ensuring the livelihoods of those who live near the coast.
It is predicted that future global warming will put more coastal communities at risk from the threat of rising sea level and more intense tropical storms.
Some people argue that hard engineering can negatively affect neighbouring coastlines and limits the ability of the coastline to respond naturally to changes in the coastal system.
Some people argue that soft engineering is only a temporary response to sea level rise and protection may be outpaced by future sea level rise.
Hard-engineering approaches (sea walls, groynes, revetments, rip rap) directly affect the physical coastal processes. They are expensive, but effective at preventing coastal recession and protecting against flooding.
Soft-engineering approaches (beach nourishment, dune stabilisation, cliff regrading and drainage) involve working with the physical processes and are a more natural form of coastal management.
There are benefits and drawbacks of each strategy and people will have different views over the weight of each positive and negative aspect of the approach. For example, sea walls can be recurved and repel wave energy to protect the coastline from destructive waves, but are large and unsightly.
No one approach to suit all coastlines and there is conflict over which approach is best.
With any policy decisions, there will be conflict between different players as their attitudes towards coastal management vary. There are perceived winners who are protected or gain from the decision and losers who may disagree with the decision or lose economically or socially.
Conflicts can occur between locals, environmental groups, tourists, farmers, policy makers, and any other users of the coastal environment.

Chapter 4

All exemplar answers given are likely to be in the top mark band.

Questions 1–9 are point-marked.

AO1 = 4
Award 1 mark for one way that the development of global communication has contributed to the acceleration of globalisation, with up to a further 3 marks for an explanation to a maximum of 4 marks.

Relevant content may include:
- Advances in communication and technology have increased the speed of globalisation. Information can now be transferred across the globe in seconds, increasing the rate of the time–space compression.
- Telegraph and telephone cables: allow instant communication, including overseas.
- Mobile phones: phone masts allow calls to be made and data transferred and received within range of a phone signal. Apps allow users fast and flexible access to a range of services from global businesses.
- Internet: high volumes of data are sent around the globe instantaneously at low cost.
- Social networking: social media platforms enable the instant exchange of information.
- Electronic banking: secure financial transactions, 24 hours a day, reduce the need for cash.
- Fibre optics: thin strands of glass or plastic used to transmit data, including for communication (internet), medical imaging, and military operations.
- Satellite technology: receive and transmit signals around Earth. Applications include weather forecasting, real-time location (e.g. GPS), broadcasting, and internet.
Example answer: Mobile phone technology has led to the spread of information across the world. Social networking has grown through the use of platforms such as X, WhatsApp, Instagram, and Facebook, leading to social globalisation. Economic globalisation has been increased in several ways using mobile phones. Firstly, by the use of online meeting platforms such as Zoom. Secondly, by the use of cloud technology to collaborate on business projects in different parts of the globe. Thirdly, by conducting banking and financial transactions using apps on smart phones.
AO1 = 4
Award 1 mark for one way in which special economic zones have contributed to the spread of globalisation, with up to a further 3 marks for an explanation to a maximum of 4 marks.

Relevant content may include:
- Special economic zones (SEZs) (also called export processing zones (EPZs) in China) were set up by national governments to offer financial or tax incentives to attract foreign direct investment (FDI), which differ from those incentives normally offered by a country.
- These zones offered tax incentives and huge pools of cheap labour.
- Companies from Europe and the USA quickly saw the advantages of outsourcing and relocating into one of southern China’s four ‘special economic zones’, later known as ‘export processing zones’. Thus, encouraging the spread of TNCs and globalisation.
- SEZs can specialise in producing goods and services, as part of global production networks, for the global market through export-orientated growth (e.g. manufacturing, technology, and financial services).
- SEZs have good transport and communication links through government investment in deep water ports, road, rail, and internet connections.
- SEZs can encourage the transfer of technology and global business practices from TNCs to the domestic market, encouraging internal development in more disadvantaged regions of a country.
- SEZs located within trade blocs can benefit from preferential access to markets of member states, increasing exports and attracting investment.
- SEZs can be hubs for regional trade, improving the efficiency of transporting exported and imported goods, including increasing economic integration within trade blocs.
- SEZs promote the liberalisation of economies and investment to encourage free trade, a key principle of the World Trade Organization.
- The International Monetary Fund can be involved with the development of SEZs, depending on the host country’s economic situation through providing financial, technical, and policy advice and assistance.
AO1 = 4
Award 1 mark for one named indicator or index that measures globalisation, with up to a further 3 marks for an explanation to a maximum of 4 marks.

Relevant content may include:
- The AT Kearney Global Cities Index focuses on how cities are linked to global flows of capital, people, and ideas. It assesses the global standing of cities by combining, then ranking data from five key dimensions: business activity, including the top global services companies; human capital, including top-ranked universities; information exchange, including broadband subscribers; and political engagement, including presence of embassies and consulates. By incorporating social, economic, and political data, different aspects of globalisation are included. Although the index is based on major cities, it shows their economic competitiveness and their level of connectivity, linking to the level of globalisation of the countries in which they are situated.
- KOF index, where KOF is an acronym for a German word meaning ‘business cycle research institute’. A country’s KOF score is calculated by measuring types of interaction: 1. economic globalisation – cross-border transactions and volume of FDI; 2. social globalisation – cross-border contacts (telephone calls, emails, tourists, foreign residents) and information flows; 3. political globalisation – the number of foreign embassies in the country, the country’s membership of different international organisations (e.g. the WTO), and its participation in UN peacekeeping activities.
AO1 = 4
Award 1 mark for one reason why many people in developing or emerging economies support the global shift of industry, with up to a further 3 marks for an explanation to a maximum of 4 marks.

Relevant content may include:
- The global shift of industry (e.g. manufacturing to China and other parts of SE Asia) has led to increased employment opportunities for local people in developing countries.
- Increasing technical skills and expertise of workers.
- Improved infrastructure development. For example, roads and internet connection needed for industrial development, which also benefits other regions and communities within the country.
- Industrial growth contributes to the multiplier effect, including the growth of the service sector, diversifying the economy.
- Increased access to global markets.
- Increased access to a greater variety of quality products at a competitive price.
AO1 = 4
Award 1 mark for one reason why international migration has increased in global hub cities, with up to a further 3 marks for an explanation to a maximum of 4 marks.

Relevant content may include:
- A global hub is a city that is highly connected globally, through international migration, business, and cultural links, and transport infrastructure.
- People with skills and qualifications in areas such as research and development, technology, management, and finance may choose to migrate to global cities as there are more job opportunities and the chance to develop their career.
- Elite international migrants may be attracted by the opportunity to take advantage of differences in tax and residency rules in some countries.
- Low-waged international economic migrant workers are attracted to work in support and ancillary services in global hubs (e.g. in domestic help, construction, and security).
- Additional points may include:
  - ○ Global hub cities are centres for globally renowned universities, focused on education as well as research and development, attracting students, academics, and innovators from across the world.
  - ○ Global hub cities are cosmopolitan, attracting migrants from different cultures, linguistic backgrounds, and ideas, who can make connections and collaborate with diverse communities.
  - ○ Global hub cities are often centres for high-level decision-making within IGOs (e.g. UN, World Bank, EU), attracting international migrants with political and diplomatic skills.
  - ○ Global hub cities are centres for the arts, music, entertainment, and sport, attracting people through the offer of rich cultural experiences.
  - ○ Global hub cities may also be a place of safety for international migrants forced to move away from more politically unstable areas.
AO1 = 4
Award 1 mark for one way in which globalisation has increased opportunities for disadvantaged groups, with up to a further 3 marks for an explanation to a maximum of 4 marks.

Relevant content may include:
- Global sports events have increased access for participants with disabilities (e.g. the 2016 Paralympic Games in Rio de Janeiro). More investment and increased global awareness through media coverage have improved opportunities for people from different disadvantaged groups. The number of countries participating, as well as the numbers of athletes, has risen significantly over the past 50 years. This has helped to change attitudes and increase participation of disadvantaged groups in different sports at a local level.
- Globalisation has led to global hubs with increased employment opportunities. In some communities, this will bring increased opportunities for disadvantaged groups, leading to opportunities for skills development and potential increased income.
- Disadvantaged groups may benefit from remittances sent home from international migrants with connections to their families and communities.
- Answers may also include:
  - ○ Globalisation has increased the amount of information accessible to disadvantaged groups through the development of communication technology, increasing educational opportunities and the ability to learn and develop skills and the opportunity to collaborate more widely.
  - ○ Disadvantaged groups (e.g. women, ethnic minorities, rural workers) may benefit from globalisation through contributing to global production networks by producing specialised goods and services, and selling goods and services via e-commerce to a global market.
  - ○ The spread of ideas through globalisation may give a voice to disadvantaged groups in the global arena, encouraging social change through increased awareness of issues such as gender inequality and indigenous rights.
AO3 = 4
1. Point accurately plotted at the intersection of child mortality = 1.4% and GDP per capita PPP = US$14,592 (1).
2. Child mortality = 2.2%; GDP per capita PPP = US$11,858 (1).
3. $5.6 – 0.3 = 5.3$
  (%) (1)
4. One from: negative correlation (1), negative relationship (1), inverse relationship (1), the higher the GDP per capita, the lower the child mortality rate (1), the higher the child mortality rate, the lower the GDP per capita (1).
AO1 = 4
Award 1 mark for one reason why some groups seek to regain their cultural identity within countries, with up to a further 3 marks for an explanation to a maximum of 4 marks.

Relevant content may include:
- Globalisation can lead to the loss of cultures and traditions within some communities, as TNCs and other organisations compete for resources in their local area.
- Increases in logging, mining, and taking land for commercial agricultural production can degrade habitats and threaten traditional rural ways of life.
- Groups may want to regain control of these environments to preserve their local culture (e.g. First Nations, Canada).
- Groups may want to regain control of their cultural identity to strengthen their heritage, customs, and language after a period of colonisation or oppression by another dominant group within the country, particularly for younger generations within the community.
- Groups may feel threatened by globalisation bringing more homogenous products (e.g. fashion), culture (e.g. English as a dominant language), and values (e.g. ‘western’ ideas and behaviours).
- Groups may want to increase their sense of belonging in a fast-changing, international world by reconnecting with cultural roots and traditions.
- Groups may want to promote their cultural identity to improve sustainable practices or develop cultural tourism opportunities for the local economy.
AO1 = 4
Award 1 mark for one reason why local groups and NGOs promote local sourcing, with up to a further 3 marks for an explanation to a maximum of 4 marks.

Relevant content may include:
- Local groups support locally sourced products because, when locally sourced products are bought, this directly supports local farmers and businesses. Money from this circulates money in the local economy, and so sustains local employment.
- Sustainability is increased as food miles are reduced if goods are produced and consumed within a smaller area, as transport costs and environmental impacts are reduced.
- Supporting local businesses helps them compete with larger companies, including TNCs. This keeps the economy more diverse and resilient to external shocks such as increases in the prices of imported food.
- Local products are part of an area’s heritage and cultural identity. So, supporting producers helps to maintain a region’s traditions and heritage.
- Local products may produce better quality, fresher products.
- More direct contact between producers and consumers, such as through selling produce in farm shops and supermarkets, increases traceability, leading to improved consumer trust.
- Local people may want to buy local products to help build up community feeling in the area.

Questions 10–18 are level-marked.

AO1 = 3 / AO2 = 9

Level	Marks	Description
	0	No rewardable material.
1	1–4	Demonstrates isolated elements of geographical knowledge and understanding, some of which may be inaccurate or irrelevant. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas, making limited logical connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce an interpretation with limited relevance and/or support. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to make unsupported or generic judgements about the significance of few factors, leading to an argument that is unbalanced or lacks coherence. (AO2)
2	5–8	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is mostly relevant and may include some inaccuracies. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas logically, making some relevant connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce a partial but coherent interpretation that is mostly relevant and supported by evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to make judgements about the significance of some factors, to produce an argument that may be unbalanced or partially coherent. (AO2)
3	9–12	Demonstrates accurate and relevant geographical knowledge and understanding throughout. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas logically, making relevant connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce a full and coherent interpretation that is relevant and supported by evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to make supported judgements about the significance of factors throughout the response, leading to a balanced and coherent argument. (AO2)

Relevant content may include:

AO1

Evolution of transportation since the nineteenth century has been significant in the growth of globalisation.
Transportation is particularly important for the movement of goods (global trade) and of people (international migration).

AO2

Railways, particularly in Europe, led to an increase in the transport of goods on a continental basis between countries.
Larger amounts of raw materials and manufactured goods could be transported by train than by road.
As technology such as high-speed freight trains and refrigeration units developed, higher volumes of a wider range of commodities and goods, including perishables, could be transported to the market.
Intermodal networks, where two types of transport link together, also increased trade opportunities. For example, rail links servicing ports, enabling products to be linked to shipping routes to increase exports.
Shipping technology has also changed over time. Steam ships increased the speed at which goods could be carried along shipping routes, contributing to the ‘shrinking world’ concept and reducing the time for goods to reach the market.
In the twentieth century, containerisation and the growth in size of container ships increased both the volume of goods carried by ship and the speed by which they can be loaded and unloaded onto ships, contributing to the globalisation of trade.
The development of the jet engine increased the speed of aircraft and enabled them to fly further without stopping.
While air transport developments are important for the trade of some types of goods (e.g. flowers), this advancement was significantly important for the movement of people, as there was less travel time between short- and long-haul destinations.
Pre internet, this was important for people to move between countries, and within large ones, to conduct business or to facilitate migration, including for employment.
Advancement in air travel also stimulated the growth of the tourism industry, leading to increased economic globalisation along with the spread of ideas and culture (e.g. food) from different countries.

Possible lines of assessment might be:

Developments in shipping have been most important for the globalisation in the trade in goods.
Developments in aircraft technology have been more important for the global movements of people, leading to increased economic and social globalisation.

Example answer: The evolution of transportation since the nineteenth century has been significant in the growth of globalisation. It has been particularly important for the movement of goods (global trade) and of people (international migration).

In terms of goods, the development of railways, particularly in Europe, led to an increase in the transport of goods on a continental basis between countries. Larger amounts of raw materials and manufactured goods could be transported by train than by road. As technology such as high-speed freight trains and refrigeration units developed, higher volumes of a wider range of commodities and goods, including perishables, could be transported to the market. Intermodal networks where two types of transport link together also increased trade opportunities. For example, rail links servicing ports enabling products to be linked to shipping routes to increase exports. Shipping technology has also changed over time. Steam ships increased the speed at which goods could be carried along shipping routes, contributing to the ‘shrinking world’ concept and reducing the time for goods to reach the market. In the twentieth century, containerisation and the growth in size of container ships increased both the volume of goods carried by ship and the speed by which they can be loaded and unloaded onto ships, contributing to the globalisation of trade.

The development of the jet engine increased the speed of aircraft and enabled them to fly further without stopping. While this was important for the trade of some types of goods (e.g. flowers), this advancement was significantly important for the movement of people, as there was less travel time between short- and long-haul destinations. Pre internet, this was important for people to move between countries, and within large ones, to conduct business or to facilitate migration, including for employment. Advancement in air travel also stimulated the growth of the tourism industry, leading to increased economic globalisation along with the spread of ideas and culture (e.g. food) from different countries.

Overall, it can be argued that developments in shipping have been most important for the globalisation in the trade in goods. Developments in aircraft technology has been more important for the global movements of people, leading to increased economic and social globalisation.

AO1 = 3 / AO2 = 9

Level	Marks	Description
	0	No rewardable material.
1	1–4	Demonstrates isolated elements of geographical knowledge and understanding, some of which may be inaccurate or irrelevant. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas, making limited logical connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce an interpretation with limited relevance and/or support. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to make unsupported or generic judgements about the significance of few factors, leading to an argument that is unbalanced or lacks coherence. (AO2)
2	5–8	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is mostly relevant and may include some inaccuracies. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas logically, making some relevant connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce a partial but coherent interpretation that is mostly relevant and supported by evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to make judgements about the significance of some factors, to produce an argument that may be unbalanced or partially coherent. (AO2)
3	9–12	Demonstrates accurate and relevant geographical knowledge and understanding throughout. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas logically, making relevant connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce a full and coherent interpretation that is relevant and supported by evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to make supported judgements about the significance of factors throughout the response, leading to a balanced and coherent argument. (AO2)

Relevant content may include:

AO1

National governments can promote globalisation by making policies that favour trade liberalisation.
National governments can reduce trade barriers such as tariffs and quotas to encourage international trade.
National governments can also decide to be part of trade blocs, increasing access to markets and interactions with other countries/trade blocs, increasing globalisation.

A02

By decreasing tariffs, national governments allow the price of imported goods to be reduced, making them more competitive.
Removing quotas allows more foreign goods to be imported into a market.
Increasing the flow of goods and services across borders increases the variety and choice for consumers, exposing them to a wider range of global brands.
Governments can offer incentives for TNCs to locate in their country.
They use tax breaks, subsidies, and relaxed regulations to attract foreign direct investment (FDI).
By creating SEZs, governments increase economic activity and increase global trade.
Companies in SEZs may employ foreign nationals, which increases globalisation through international migration.
SEZs may also promote activities that develop and share technology in partnership with countries.
National governments can invest in infrastructure such as roads, rail, and ports, which encourages intermodal transport, increasing the volume of trade and the speed at which it reaches the market.
They can adopt policies that encourage research and development of new technologies, as well as promoting entrepreneurship and new startups.
Acting with other countries as members of free trade blocs, national governments can promote free trade of goods and services.
The 27 member states of the EU operate within a single market, so trade within them is not restricted by trade barriers.
Freedom of movement of goods, services, capital, and people increase economic activity and interconnectivity.
Trade blocs such as the EU create trade agreements with those outside the bloc, such as the EU and the UK, promoting international trade.

Possible lines of assessment might be:

National governments can act independently or as part of a larger group to promote free trade, increasing globalisation.
National governments when part of trade blocs may have arguably more influence on globalisation, as they can have higher volumes of trade and wider international connections.
Trade blocs have helped the process of globalisation, increasing interdependence of countries and organisations.
National governments can influence globalisation through their individual policies, especially through FDI and SEZs.

AO1 = 3 / AO2 = 9

Level	Marks	Description
	0	No rewardable material.
1	1–4	Demonstrates isolated elements of geographical knowledge and understanding, some of which may be inaccurate or irrelevant. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas, making limited logical connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce an interpretation with limited relevance and/or support. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to make unsupported or generic judgements about the significance of few factors, leading to an argument that is unbalanced or lacks coherence. (AO2)
2	5–8	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is mostly relevant and may include some inaccuracies. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas logically, making some relevant connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce a partial but coherent interpretation that is mostly relevant and supported by evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to make judgements about the significance of some factors, to produce an argument that may be unbalanced or partially coherent. (AO2)
3	9–12	Demonstrates accurate and relevant geographical knowledge and understanding throughout. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas logically, making relevant connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce a full and coherent interpretation that is relevant and supported by evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to make supported judgements about the significance of factors throughout the response, leading to a balanced and coherent argument. (AO2)

Relevant content may include:

A01

Physical reasons why some locations remain ‘detached’ or more isolated from global markets: ‘remote’ geographical locations or being landlocked.
Economic reasons why some locations remain ‘detached’ or more isolated from global markets: major income source are lower-value primary products; under-skilled workforce due to poor education system.
Political reasons why some locations remain ‘detached’ or more isolated from global markets: authoritarian governments with isolationist policies.
Environmental reasons why some locations remain ‘detached’ or more isolated from global markets: susceptibility to the effects of climate change.

A02

Physical features such as coastlines are important. Countries that are landlocked do not have direct access to seaports.
This is very important for global trade, because unless they are flown out of the country, goods have to pass through other countries by road, rail, or river.
This increases the time taken for goods to reach global markets and makes countries dependent on stable relations with neighbours to access trade routes.
TNCs may also be put off investing in the country, as it is harder for them to import raw materials and components and export finished products.
Economic factors are important as these link to the ability of a country to produce goods and services for the global market.
If countries have an economy that relies on subsistence agriculture, they will be able to produce surplus to sell for export.
Countries with lower literacy rates due to poor access to education may not have workers with the skills needed for a wider range of higher-earning manufacturing or service employment.
TNCs may choose to invest in other locations, leaving the country further isolated.
Political factors can be very important. The policies and attitude of governments towards global trade and the outside world can have a strong influence on whether a country is ‘switched on or off’.
Authoritarian governments, such as North Korea, may limit connections with the international community, including foreign governments and TNCs.
They may limit media and internet connectivity and try to become self-sufficient.
Environmental factors are becoming increasingly important, particularly with climate change.
Areas with extreme climates (e.g. hot/cold/dry) may find it difficult to develop transport networks (unless there is a large amount of innovation and investment).
Some parts of countries may be very difficult to connect to the global market.
Climate change may reduce agricultural production in some areas (e.g. the Sahel), limiting exports.
For North Korea, a ‘detached’ country with a very low GDP per capita, the most important reason is political isolation.
The current government is a hereditary autocracy which limits connectivity with the international community.
There are low levels of official trade between North Korea and other countries.
International movements are highly restricted or forbidden, such as tourism and emigration.
Internet is only allowed with special permission.

Possible lines of assessment might be:

Physical reasons are more important, as landlocked countries have more limited trade routes and have to rely on neighbouring countries to export and import many types of goods.
Economic reasons are important, as dependence on lower-value exports and higher-value imports make it difficult for economies to grow (trade deficits).
Political reasons are important, as authoritarian governments such as North Korea actively promote more isolationist policies, leaving the country ‘detached’.
Environmental reasons are important and will potentially affect more countries in the future due to the impacts of climate change on agricultural production.

AO1 = 3 / AO2 = 9

Level	Marks	Description
	0	No rewardable material.
1	1–4	Demonstrates isolated elements of geographical knowledge and understanding, some of which may be inaccurate or irrelevant. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas, making limited logical connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce an interpretation with limited relevance and/or support. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to make unsupported or generic judgements about the significance of few factors, leading to an argument that is unbalanced or lacks coherence. (AO2)
2	5–8	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is mostly relevant and may include some inaccuracies. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas logically, making some relevant connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce a partial but coherent interpretation that is mostly relevant and supported by evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to make judgements about the significance of some factors, to produce an argument that may be unbalanced or partially coherent. (AO2)
3	9–12	Demonstrates accurate and relevant geographical knowledge and understanding throughout. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas logically, making relevant connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce a full and coherent interpretation that is relevant and supported by evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to make supported judgements about the significance of factors throughout the response, leading to a balanced and coherent argument. (AO2)

Relevant content may include:

A01

The movement of manufacturing to Asia, including China, has led to environmental change in both deindustrialising countries and those with a growing manufacturing economy.
There have been benefits and costs for both the built and natural environment.
The level of impacts on the environment depends on many factors, such as the type of industry involved, the effectiveness of environmental regulations, and the level of innovation and technology in making industries more environmentally sustainable.

A02

There are many challenges for the natural environment caused by the global shift.
Many places have experienced increased levels of pollution because of industrial development.
Waste products resulting from manufacturing processes include the release of air pollutants into the atmosphere from combustion, contamination of ground water and water courses, and dumping of solid waste onto landfill sites.
Greenfield sites developed for new factories can lead to a loss of biodiversity and habitats. Agricultural land may also be lost to development, leading to a loss of crop yields.
Industrialisation can bring challenges for the built environment.
The global shift has increased rural-to-urban migration, as workers are attracted to new employment opportunities.
Houses are needed for workers, sometimes causing unplanned settlements or informal housing on the edge of cities to develop.
In the developed world, the global shift causes buildings to become derelict and land contaminated, making it more difficult and more expensive to redevelop.
Energy demands of industry can put a strain on natural resources. Fossil fuels may still be used, as sufficient renewable energy sources are not available.
This increases carbon emissions, increasing global warming and affecting climate change.
The global shift can have positive consequences for the natural and built environment.
In the developed world, old industrial areas can be cleaned up and repurposed for other land uses such as residential, tourism, and services (e.g. London Docklands).
In economies that have attracted industry, the built environment may be improved through investment in infrastructure, such as better-quality roads, more effective drainage, and improved sewerage.
TNCs bring investment which may be put towards developing greener energy, such as renewables. Companies may bring knowledge of ways to increase energy efficiency and waste reduction to make their production more sustainable.
Governments are more aware of the impact of industry on the environment and may put stricter regulations and monitoring in place to improve environmental standards.

Possible lines of assessment might be:

Some argue that the global shift has created more costs than benefits, particularly in relation to the natural environment.
Many initiatives have been put forward to reduce the environmental impacts of industry in emerging economies with different degrees of success. For example, improvements in environmental legislation in EMEs.

Note that you should also include details from examples you have studied.

AO1 = 3 / AO2 = 9

Level	Marks	Description
	0	No rewardable material.
1	1–4	Demonstrates isolated elements of geographical knowledge and understanding, some of which may be inaccurate or irrelevant. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas, making limited logical connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce an interpretation with limited relevance and/or support. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to make unsupported or generic judgements about the significance of few factors, leading to an argument that is unbalanced or lacks coherence. (AO2)
2	5–8	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is mostly relevant and may include some inaccuracies. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas logically, making some relevant connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce a partial but coherent interpretation that is mostly relevant and supported by evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to make judgements about the significance of some factors, to produce an argument that may be unbalanced or partially coherent. (AO2)
3	9–12	Demonstrates accurate and relevant geographical knowledge and understanding throughout. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas logically, making relevant connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce a full and coherent interpretation that is relevant and supported by evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to make supported judgements about the significance of factors throughout the response, leading to a balanced and coherent argument. (AO2)

Relevant content may include:

A01

Migration can bring economic costs and economic benefits to both the source and destination countries.
Migration can be internal or international.
These include impacts linked to money (e.g. remittances for those in the source area, impact of the multiplier effect in the destination economy) and employment (e.g. labour shortages in the source area, opportunities for higher-income jobs in the destination area).

A02

For the source country, there are many economic costs of migrants leaving the country.
- ○ The brain drain can occur as skilled workers move elsewhere to earn money.
- ○ These can include health, education, and business professionals who are not practising their skills in the source country, affecting the level of development of a country.
- ○ Brain drain causes a reduction in the percentage of economically active people in a population, reducing the number of workers available in some professions and causing a skills gap.
- ○ Less tax will be paid to the government. It will need to pay for the increasing dependent (young and/or elderly) population.
- ○ Businesses may close due to rural depopulation.

However, there are also economic benefits for the source country.
- ○ Income is gained by families in the source country through remittances.
- ○ There may be less expenditure for the government on certain services used by the economically active population (e.g. health).
- ○ Migrants who eventually return home are likely to have developed skills that can be used to boost their home economy. There may be increased employment opportunities for those who remain.
For the host country, economic costs may include an increase in the cost of services (e.g. health and education for migrants).
Housing may also have to be subsidised for certain groups.
However, migrants help to fill labour shortages in the host country in a range of low- and high-skilled sectors (e.g. agriculture, hospitality, and healthcare).
Migrants earn money and spend it in the local economy and pay taxes to the government.
Increasing the number of economically active people reduces the proportion of dependents in the host country, reducing costs for the government.
Migrants are diverse and dynamic and bring skills to the host country (e.g. entrepreneurship).

Possible lines of assessment might be:

The economic impact of migration varies from location to location.
Different impacts on source area and destination area.
Differences in impacts between internal and international migration streams.
For some places, the economic benefits are greater for the destination country than for the source country.

Note that you should include details from examples of migration streams you have studied to help expand your points.

AO1 = 3 / AO2 = 9

Level	Marks	Description
	0	No rewardable material.
1	1–4	Demonstrates isolated elements of geographical knowledge and understanding, some of which may be inaccurate or irrelevant. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas, making limited logical connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce an interpretation with limited relevance and/or support. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to make unsupported or generic judgements about the significance of few factors, leading to an argument that is unbalanced or lacks coherence. (AO2)
2	5–8	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is mostly relevant and may include some inaccuracies. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas logically, making some relevant connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce a partial but coherent interpretation that is mostly relevant and supported by evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to make judgements about the significance of some factors, to produce an argument that may be unbalanced or partially coherent. (AO2)
3	9–12	Demonstrates accurate and relevant geographical knowledge and understanding throughout. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas logically, making relevant connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce a full and coherent interpretation that is relevant and supported by evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to make supported judgements about the significance of factors throughout the response, leading to a balanced and coherent argument. (AO2)

Relevant content may include:

A01

Cultural diffusion is the spread of ideas, practices, and behaviours around the world.
TNCs, technology, tourism, and migration have contributed to globalisation by increasing connectivity and interrelationships across the world.

A02

TNCs significantly influence the diffusion of cultures.
The largest and most influential TNCs tend to be from ‘western’ countries, such as the USA and Europe.
Companies such as Apple, Microsoft, and Nike have large global operations and their products have large global markets.
Products, including fashion brands, are also seen as desirable by younger consumers, and this can help to spread western brands more rapidly in other world regions.
Different cultures can be spread rapidly round the world via the internet and smart phones.
Technology allows information to be transmitted and shared instantly around the world.
The rise of social media platforms such as TikTok, YouTube, and X (formally known as Twitter) spread ideas quickly. Some argue that this is one of the most effective ways of globalisation as not only is information shared quickly, but it can also reach a large amount of people via smart phones, influencing personal trends and behaviour.
Media corporations such as Disney and the BBC have spread western ideas. More recently, streaming services (e.g. Netflix) have also contributed to the spread of other cultures and languages.
The growth of tourism has led to the diffusion of cultural ideas, behaviours, and languages.
Destinations may have multilingual guides and ‘western food’ to appeal to some of their customers.
Tourist resorts may have different attitudes to alcohol tolerance or dress codes than in other parts of the country to accommodate tourist demands.
Migration has also led to cultural diffusion. As migration is a global phenomenon, migrants may diffuse a range of cultures, not just those from a western culture.
Migrants can bring their own culture and traditions (e.g. food), which may become popular in the destination location.
Migrants may help to share skills and practices with communities in their host country.
Migrants can also influence the diffusion of culture in the built environment (e.g. by communities establishing religious buildings).

Possible lines of assessment might be:

Some argue that the increase in international migration has been a major factor in cultural diffusion.
Some may argue that in the twenty-first century, it has been a combination of TNCs and the use of the internet that have allowed cultures to spread more quickly and easily.

AO1 = 3 / AO2 = 9

Level	Marks	Description
	0	No rewardable material.
1	1–4	Demonstrates isolated elements of geographical knowledge and understanding, some of which may be inaccurate or irrelevant. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas, making limited logical connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce an interpretation with limited relevance and/or support. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to make unsupported or generic judgements about the significance of few factors, leading to an argument that is unbalanced or lacks coherence. (AO2)

Level	Marks	Description
2	5–8	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is mostly relevant and may include some inaccuracies. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas logically, making some relevant connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce a partial but coherent interpretation that is mostly relevant and supported by evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to make judgements about the significance of some factors, to produce an argument that may be unbalanced or partially coherent. (AO2)
3	9–12	Demonstrates accurate and relevant geographical knowledge and understanding throughout. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas logically, making relevant connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce a full and coherent interpretation that is relevant and supported by evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to make supported judgements about the significance of factors throughout the response, leading to a balanced and coherent argument. (AO2)

Relevant content may include:

AO1

Development gap extremities in countries are the differences between different measures of development (economic, social, political, environmental) between different areas of a country.
The differences between higher and lower levels of development may be caused by different factors, e.g. historical, locational, economic, social, environmental, political.
Globalisation has also led to dramatic increases in development for some countries but has led to a widening development gap extremities within countries, including through the influence of TNCs and FDI.
The Gini Coefficient measures the level of income inequality of a country by focusing on the distribution of household income, indicating the severity of the development gap within countries.
The concept of ‘Core-periphery’ can also explain regional inequalities within a country.

AO2

Historical: Some countries with significant development gaps were former colonies. The extraction of resources and the establishment of centres for colonial rule and trade left behind a legacy of economic imbalance. The transition from post-colonial rule to independence may have involved political and economic instability, leading to unequal development levels within a country.
Physical: a country’s location may influence levels of development within it. Areas of country that are coastal or near major rivers benefit from closer access to trade routes. Some regions of a country may be more remote due to the physical landscape (e.g. mountains, extreme climate) or through lack of investment in infrastructure.
Economic: Income inequality may be significantly different between different areas of a country, for example Gini Coefficients for the UK (32.6) and South Africa (63) suggest that South Africa has a higher level of income inequality, contributing towards a higher development gap within the country than in the UK. This may be due to a range of factors such as resource endowment and exploitation, economic policies e.g. internal (favouring urban over rural regions for investment, level of financial support for deindustrialised areas) or external (impacts of international trade policies and relationships on different regions within a country, the ability of a region to attract FDI, particularly from the location of resource exploitation or manufacturing hubs by TNCs, concentrations of higher value tertiary and quaternary sectors in urban centres). International debt crisis may also affect a country’s ability to invest in poorer regions.
Social: Different levels of investment in health and education systems between different regions; cultural differences between regions; different levels of gender equality between regions.
Political: Levels of political stability between regions. Areas with weaker political institutions may deter foreign investment. Corruption: areas where corruption is high may have less money for investment in key services.
Environmental: Some regions may be more vulnerable to climate change impacts which can be both short term (extreme weather, flooding) or long term (drought), leading to slower development and increased poverty. Some regions’ environments may be damaged by resource extraction or by air, water, land, noise pollution from economic activities.
Key concepts such as Globalisation and Core periphery can also help to explain development disparities within countries.
Globalisation: can disproportionately benefit certain regions, particularly those linked to global manufacturing supply chains or tourist centres. These regions are likely to benefit from the local multiplier effect of TNCs and FDI or increased foreign exchange from income from tourism. Globalisation also triggers migration within a country. Internal migrants may move from poorer rural areas to wealthier urban areas. This can lead to reduction of threshold populations for key services in rural areas and the growth of slums in urban areas. Pockets of wealth may develop in rural regions due to internal migrants sending remittances back to their home communities.
Core Periphery: some countries may have core regions with higher concentrations of economic activities and populations leading to a higher share of a country’s wealth than more underdeveloped peripheral areas which have experienced economic decline or lack of investment.

Possible lines of assessment might be:

Candidates should use a range of examples to demonstrate the development gap within countries.
They should discuss the different causes for development inequalities within their chosen countries and assess which factors are or have been more important.
Candidates could also compare countries to discuss how a particular factor (e.g. environmental) may have been more significant when explaining one country’s development gap compared to a contrasting country.
Candidates may find that globalisation, including TNCs and FDI has been an important factor when assessing recent widening of the development gap within their country.

AO1 = 3 / AO2 = 9

Level	Marks	Description
	0	No rewardable material.
1	1–4	Demonstrates isolated elements of geographical knowledge and understanding, some of which may be inaccurate or irrelevant. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas, making limited logical connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce an interpretation with limited relevance and/or support. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to make unsupported or generic judgements about the significance of few factors, leading to an argument that is unbalanced or lacks coherence. (AO2)
2	5–8	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is mostly relevant and may include some inaccuracies. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas logically, making some relevant connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce a partial but coherent interpretation that is mostly relevant and supported by evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to make judgements about the significance of some factors, to produce an argument that may be unbalanced or partially coherent. (AO2)
3	9–12	Demonstrates accurate and relevant geographical knowledge and understanding throughout. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas logically, making relevant connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce a full and coherent interpretation that is relevant and supported by evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to make supported judgements about the significance of factors throughout the response, leading to a balanced and coherent argument. (AO2)

Relevant content may include:

A01

Some locations have tried to control the spread of globalisation in different ways and with different levels of success.
Methods include censorship, migration control, and trade protectionism.

A02

Some may argue that censorship is an effective way to slow down globalisation. Censorship is the restriction of information.
Countries with strict censorship rules (e.g. North Korea) can limit the use of a wide range of media, including internet-based communication, films, and print media.
Foreign media can be monitored or forbidden and some apps on smart phones made unavailable, with the population using local alternatives.
Censorship can stop the spread of ideas globally, but this can depend on the type of government and their ability to enforce the censorship rules.
Others argue that limits to migration can prevent the spread of globalisation.
Governments can control immigration (e.g. through visas and emigration, and permission to leave). Many countries have brought in schemes to control migration, with new migrants having to meet certain criteria to be able to stay. Those with certain skills may be given priority.
Limiting who can move into and out of a country may control the spread of migration, which in turn will affect levels of globalisation.
Illegal migration may take place, making it more difficult for governments to control globalisation.
Trade protectionism is another way governments can control the spread of globalisation. Countries may limit imports to protect their domestic industries.
Governments can impose tariffs on imported goods, quotas (maximum amount of traded goods), or give subsidies to financially protect their own industries from fluctuations in value of goods on the global market.
However, 164 countries are members of the World Trade Organization (WTO) which promotes free trade, so trade protectionism may not be favoured by some countries.

Possible lines of assessment might be:

Focus on government-level control of globalisation through censorship, migration control, and trade protectionism.
Local action in some locations (e.g. local sourcing of products to control spread of globalisation), but these may be less effective or only on a small scale.

AO1 = 3 / AO2 = 9

Level	Marks	Description
	0	No rewardable material.
1	1–4	Demonstrates isolated elements of geographical knowledge and understanding, some of which may be inaccurate or irrelevant. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas, making limited logical connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce an interpretation with limited relevance and/or support. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to make unsupported or generic judgements about the significance of few factors, leading to an argument that is unbalanced or lacks coherence. (AO2)

Level	Marks	Description
2	5–8	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is mostly relevant and may include some inaccuracies. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas logically, making some relevant connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce a partial but coherent interpretation that is mostly relevant and supported by evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to make judgements about the significance of some factors, to produce an argument that may be unbalanced or partially coherent. (AO2)
3	9–12	Demonstrates accurate and relevant geographical knowledge and understanding throughout. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas logically, making relevant connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce a full and coherent interpretation that is relevant and supported by evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to make supported judgements about the significance of factors throughout the response, leading to a balanced and coherent argument. (AO2)

Relevant content may include:

AO1

Whilst bringing benefits such as consumer choice, increased product quality and reduced prices due to wider market competition, concerns have been raised at the spread of globalisation.
Initiatives to de-globalise (e.g. local sourcing) and ethical and environmental concerns about production and consumption have been put forward as a response to the spread of globalisation.
Local sourcing is the ability to provide products for the consumer which only have to be transported from the local vicinity, saving transportation costs and reducing carbon emissions as well as supporting local employment.
Ethical concerns about unsustainability regarding worker exploitation through cheaper labour have been raised and cultural erosion through the spread of ‘western’ products, language and practices.
Environmental concerns about unsustainability regarding the damage to the environment caused by production, transportation and consumption as well as the use of finite resources have been put forward. Recycling can be an effective way to manage resource consumption and reduce the ecological footprints of products.
Resources such as glass, paper, and plastics can be conserved through recycling, rather than extracting raw materials for products.

AO2

Local sourcing as response to globalisation.
Links to ‘Think global, act local’ strategy, allowing people to purchase good quality local products and reduce their carbon footprint; supports the local economy by generating and keeping money within it, allowing for reinvestment that benefits local people; conserves traditional manufacturing methods and products, maintaining diversity and heterogeneity of choice; farmers can add value to products e.g. organic ice cream, or create new products e.g. wine; local communities can benefit e.g. Tormorden transition town, Lancashire, UK.
Limitations of local sourcing as a response to globalisation.
Prices can be higher than products obtained through global supply chain as they do not benefit from economies of scale, making them inaccessible for people on low incomes; less variety due to availability of local expertise, resources, climate; reduces income for producers in other parts of the world, including LICs; production techniques may require increased energy use e.g. using greenhouses to make the quantity required to meet market demand.
Ethical concerns about unsustainability as a response to globalisation.
Increased awareness about buying more ethically, including fair trade products, so employees get a fairer wage through gaining a minimum price for their products; Increased awareness of production methods of TNCs e.g. the fast fashion industry; pressure on TNCs and governments by consumers and NGOs to support fairer, safer working conditions for workers and have more stringent compliance practices in their global supply chain; increased awareness of TNCs to show ‘social responsibility’; increased awareness of need to protect and promote local culture, traditions and language.
Limitations of ethical concerns about unsustainability to globalisation.
Practical and longer term difficulties of being able to completely opt out/boycott many different products; more ethically produced goods are more expensive, pricing out lower income customers; Sometimes difficult to source ethical products in some markets; cost and logistics of independently monitoring and inspecting companies (including outsourcing firms) to ensure safe, fair working conditions are being met; not all producers can join fair trade schemes ; English a major language in many sectors of the global economy including technology, transport and communication, global business and politics.
Environmental concerns about unsustainability as a response to globalisation.
The unsustainable use of finite resources in global production has resulted in an increased focus in the reduction of use, recycling and reuse of products; increased carbon footprint/food miles can change consumer choices to buy more locally and food products more seasonally; increase in R&D to reduce need for finite raw materials by developing substitute materials.
Limitations of environmental concerns about unsustainability as a response to globalisation.
Success in reduction of use, recycling and reuse of products relies on many factors including: consumer awareness, behaviour, education and accessibility to recycling; government policy including commitment to the circular economy, investment, communication; growth of green technologies; some materials are more difficult and more expensive to recycle; need for countries to balance economic development with environmental protection.

Possible lines of assessment might be:

Candidates should discuss all parts of the question i.e. the approach of local sourcing and its limitations, ethical concerns and their limitations, and environmental concerns and their limitations, as a response to globalisation.
Candidates should use a range of examples to help assess each part of the question and ensure they formulate an overall judgement based on their ideas.
Candidates may discuss economic factors as being highly significant in the response to the spread of globalisation e.g. affordability and availability of products, ability to invest in greener technology, including recycling and reuse. This may affect the spread of globalisation in LICs and MICs.

Chapter 5

All exemplar answers given are likely to be in the top mark band.

Questions 1–5 are point-marked.

AO1 = 3
Award 1 mark for a reason why regeneration strategies often involve tensions and 2 marks for an expansion of that reason (1 mark of which could be an example).

Relevant content may include:
- Local interest groups may have different priorities to those planning the regeneration strategy (1). For example, residents near large infrastructure projects such as the High Speed 2 railway line may prioritise a peaceful living and natural environment (1) over the ability to travel to places more quickly (1).
- The strategy may not have consulted every interest group (1) or would have prioritised some groups over others (1), meaning that certain groups may have felt disappointed or betrayed (1). For example, open doors migration policies have led to rapid demographic changes in some regions (1) such as Boston in Lincolnshire, which saw an influx of agricultural workers in the 2000s (1).
- Restrictions on funding (1) caused by austerity measures or economic recession (1) mean that some schemes are delayed or cancelled (1). For example, the Leeds SuperTram scheme in the 2010s (1).
Example answer: Local interest groups may have different priorities to the national government. For example, residents near large infrastructure projects such as the High Speed 2 railway line may prioritise a peaceful living and natural environment over the ability to travel to places more quickly.
AO1 = 3
Award 1 mark for a reason why local government efforts to attract businesses might have varying levels of success and 2 marks for an expansion of that reason (1 mark of which could be an example).

Relevant content may include:
- Long-lasting negative branding of places (1) may make impressions hard to shift (1), thus slowing down inward investment and/or inward movement of residents, day visitors, or tourists (1).
- Restrictions on funding (1) caused by austerity measures, cutbacks from central government, or economic mismanagement (1) mean that some schemes are delayed or cancelled (1).
- Local communities may have different priorities to the local government (1). For example, residents near science and technology parks such as the York Science Park may prioritise a peaceful living and natural environment (1) over the ability to attract investment and create jobs (1).
- Local preservation societies may want to use planning restrictions to curb developments (1), as they feel they may drastically change the heritage value, aesthetics, and/or environmental benefits of an area (1). For example, Bradford Civic Society’s campaign to save Kirkgate Market from demolition in the 1970s (1).
AO1 = 2 / AO2 = 1
Award 1 mark for analysing the resource to identify one reason for why conflicts can occur among contrasting groups in communities about the priorities for regeneration, and a further 2 marks for expansion up to a maximum of 3 marks.

Relevant content may include:
- Some ‘Friends’ groups, likely to be dominated by older members of the community, prefer parks to be peaceful retreats (1), whereas many younger people like to gather in large groups (1) and play ‘loud music… late at night’ (1). This is characterised as ‘antisocial behaviour’ by many older residents (1).
- Members of the community who do not drink or take drugs may want to exclude drinkers or drug users from communal spaces (1) because of their association with ‘litter associated with drinking and drug-taking’ (1), whereas younger members of the community may want to use such places to socialise (1).
- Environmentalists, who would like parks to be safe areas for wildlife (1), will object to ‘litter associated with drinking and drug-taking’ and ‘loud music… late at night’ as they will interfere with plant and animal habitats (1), as opposed to many younger people who prioritise meeting up in communal land (1).
AO1 = 3
Award 1 mark for an explanation of why local interest groups seek to influence decision-making about regeneration projects and 2 marks for an expansion of that reason (1 mark of which could be an example).

Relevant content may include:
- Local interest groups may have concerns about changes in the physical character of an area (1). For example, local preservation societies may wish to keep the Victorian facades of disused shops, places of worship, or mills (1); for example, Lister Mills in Bradford (1).
- Local trade union branches may have concerns about the loss of jobs if an economic activity is changing (1). For example, when steel mills move from blast furnaces to electric arc furnaces (1), such as the changes in the steel works in Port Talbot, Wales (1).
- Regeneration involving pedestrianisation will be of interest to Chambers of Commerce (1), who may worry about the disruption caused by building work (1) and difficulty in organising deliveries (1), but who may also see the benefit of shoppers being enticed back into city centres (1). For example, the Liverpool One multi-use development (1).
AO1 = 2 / AO2 = 1
Award 1 mark for analysing the resource to identify one reason for why places have changed their demographic characteristics over time, and a further 2 marks for expansion up to a maximum of 3 marks.

Relevant content may include:
- Social clustering (a preference for living close to people you wish to be with) (1). This may be choice, to share community facilities (1), such as shops, food outlets, places of worship, or community centres (1), or it may be as a protection from racism (1). It also allows language and customs to be maintained (1). For example, when many Ugandan Asians settled in Leicester (East Midlands) in the 1970s and 80s (1).
- Accessibility to key cities, which have higher employment opportunities (1) or did so when certain waves of migration occurred (1). For example, northern textile cities and midlands engineering and manufacturing cities (1); for example, Pakistanis in Birmingham (West Midlands) in the 1960s and 70s (1).
- Government planning policy (1): after the Second World War, the UK government sponsored job advertisements abroad and agreed immigration targets (1) to fill labour gaps in the NHS, factories, and public transport (1), which were mainly located in larger cities such as London and Birmingham (West Midlands) (1).

Questions 6–15 are level-marked.

AO1 = 6

Level	Marks	Description
	0	No rewardable material.
1	1–2	Demonstrates isolated elements of geographical knowledge and understanding, some of which may be inaccurate. (AO1) Understanding addresses a narrow range of geographical ideas, which lacks detail. (AO1)
2	3–4	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is mostly relevant and may include some inaccuracies. (AO1) Understanding addresses a range of geographical ideas, which are not fully detailed and/or developed. (AO1)
3	5–6	Demonstrates accurate and relevant geographical knowledge and understanding throughout. (AO1) Understanding addresses a broad range of geographical ideas, which are detailed and fully developed. (AO1)

Relevant content may include:

Local governments in the UK compete to attract both domestic and foreign investors as they recognise the benefits associated with increased investment inflows to their areas.
Investment may be in key sectors such as technology, manufacturing, finance, etc. and is generated by offering businesses incentives to locate in an area that may otherwise not be their first choice.
This investment stimulates economic growth in the area (e.g. post-industrial cities), and has the potential to create jobs, generate the need for infrastructure developments, and so boost the overall wealth and attractiveness of the area/city. Myrdal’s cumulative causation model, for example, Manchester/Northern Powerhouse.
Investment can also be into residential and commercial areas. Through offering public-private incentives, local governments encourage private sector investment, which drives urban renewal/regeneration and improved living conditions for local residents in previously neglected areas. For example, London’s Docklands.
Local governments also compete for investment in the form of national government seed funding because a competition-based approach is favoured by the national government. Competitions such as the Towns Fund (e.g. Keighley, West Yorkshire) or the UK City of Culture scheme (e.g. Bradford, West Yorkshire) require councils to bid to attract government funding, which will then hopefully lead to private sector investment.
Local governments may be forced to compete for investment owing to the growth of a neo-liberal, market-based approach to attract funding as national governments cut back on central funding.
Local governments may compete for investment owing to the growth of a neo-liberal, market-based approach to attract funding, and to ‘fill the gap’ left by departing corporations.

Example answer: Local governments in the UK actively engage in competition to attract both domestic and foreign investors, recognising the many benefits associated with increased investment inflows. For instance, post-industrial cities like Manchester have supported ambitious initiatives such as the Northern Powerhouse to foster investment in key sectors like technology, manufacturing, and finance. By attracting investment, these cities stimulate economic growth, create employment opportunities, and bolster infrastructure development, thereby enhancing the overall competitiveness and prosperity of the region. This reflects Myrdal’s cumulative causation model.

Sometimes such investment can be directed towards commercial and residential ends. The transformation of the Docklands area in London serves as a prime example of how once-declining industrial zones can be transformed into thriving commercial and residential districts. Through public-private partnerships and targeted incentives, local governments attract private sector investments, driving urban renewal and improving living standards for residents in formerly neglected areas.

Local governments also compete for investment because a competition-based approach is favoured by the national government. Competitions such as the Towns Fund or the UK City of Culture scheme necessitate councils putting together bids to attract national government seed funding, which will then, it is hoped, lead to private sector investment. The Towns Fund has helped shops in Keighley, West Yorkshire, regenerate its high street. Councils need to bid for this money because less automatic funding comes their way from national governments.

AO1 = 6

Level	Marks	Description
	0	No rewardable material.
1	1–2	Demonstrates isolated elements of geographical knowledge and understanding, some of which may be inaccurate. (AO1) Understanding addresses a narrow range of geographical ideas, which lacks detail. (AO1)
2	3–4	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is mostly relevant and may include some inaccuracies. (AO1) Understanding addresses a range of geographical ideas, which are not fully detailed and/or developed. (AO1)
3	5–6	Demonstrates accurate and relevant geographical knowledge and understanding throughout. (AO1) Understanding addresses a broad range of geographical ideas, which are detailed and fully developed. (AO1)

Relevant content may include:

Towns also have distinctive demographic characteristics which are reflected in employment trends, land-use patterns, and levels of inequality and deprivation.
Statistics can be used to show demographic change. For example:
- ○ In 2011, 86% of people in England and Wales were white, compared with 91.3% in 2001. On average the population grew by 7.1%, but by 9.0% in urban and 2.5% in rural areas, showing the impacts of immigration and growth on a multicultural society.
- ○ In 2011, 86% of people in England and Wales were white, compared with 91.3% in 2001. On average the population grew by 7.1%, but by 9.0% in urban and 2.5% in rural areas, showing the impacts of immigration and growth on a multicultural society.
- ○ In 2011, approximately 10% of people were employed in trade and managerial or director positions in urban areas, but 14% in rural areas. These generate higher earnings, and with improved technology and communications has enabled more skilled people to live in rural areas.

Gentrification is a change in the social structure of a place when affluent people move into a location. This often follows deindustrialisation, and the shift towards a service-based economy. Gentrification can be uncoordinated or planned. It is often resisted by local residents.
Inward migration might change an area’s population and ethnic mix, and existing residents might leave. Newcomers may be attracted by jobs or regeneration projects. In recent decades, gentrification has sometimes resulted in the displacement of migrant communities.
Urban areas in economic decline will often have an older age profile, as young adults of working age leave to find jobs. Regenerated areas often attract young adults.
Areas with a high proportion of recent migrants will tend to have more young adults, especially males, and more children.

AO1 = 6

Level	Marks	Description
	0	No rewardable material.
1	1–2	Demonstrates isolated elements of geographical knowledge and understanding, some of which may be inaccurate. (AO1) Understanding addresses a narrow range of geographical ideas, which lacks detail. (AO1)
2	3–4	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is mostly relevant and may include some inaccuracies. (AO1) Understanding addresses a range of geographical ideas, which are not fully detailed and/or developed. (AO1)
3	5–6	Demonstrates accurate and relevant geographical knowledge and understanding throughout. (AO1) Understanding addresses a broad range of geographical ideas, which are detailed and fully developed. (AO1)

Relevant content may include:

Variations in quality of life between places can often be attributed to inequalities in pay levels, which significantly influence living standards within communities across the UK.
Regions with limited employment prospects or struggling industries may experience lower quality of life indicators due to higher unemployment rates, stagnant wages, and limited access to essential services.
For example, industrial decline in areas of the UK such as south Wales, north-west England and western Scotland has resulted in low pay, job losses, economic dislocation, and social deprivation, exacerbating inequalities and resulting in poorer health.
As a result, disparities in employment opportunities and income distribution contribute to spatial variations in quality of life outcomes.
Whilst income-deprived neighbourhoods tend to have lower levels of self-reported quality of life, they also tend to score higher on access to some services and on housing affordability.

AO1 = 6

Level	Marks	Description
	0	No rewardable material.
1	1–2	Demonstrates isolated elements of geographical knowledge and understanding, some of which may be inaccurate. (AO1) Understanding addresses a narrow range of geographical ideas, which lacks detail. (AO1)
2	3–4	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is mostly relevant and may include some inaccuracies. (AO1) Understanding addresses a range of geographical ideas, which are not fully detailed and/or developed. (AO1)
3	5–6	Demonstrates accurate and relevant geographical knowledge and understanding throughout. (AO1) Understanding addresses a broad range of geographical ideas, which are detailed and fully developed. (AO1)

Relevant content may include:

Conflict and contest around regeneration strategies is often as a result of conflicting priorities and stakeholder interests. Conflict can arise over what aspect of regeneration should be prioritised; whether it’s social, economic, or environmental.
Small- to medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) may prioritise infrastructure improvements, while residents may prioritise addressing antisocial behaviour or enhancing access to affordable healthy food and sports facilities.
Top-down regeneration schemes initiated by local or national governments tend to benefit from better funding but may lack flexibility in responding to local concerns and preferences.
Bottom-up approaches led by local groups may better represent community voices but can suffer from limited resources and dependence on individual leaders, potentially excluding marginalised voices and exacerbating any social divisions within communities.
Local authorities may aim to incorporate community input. However, bureaucratic processes and competing interests may delay implementation or lead to partial representation of community needs.
Private companies, who may move more quickly, may prioritise profit margins over social considerations, potentially sidelining essential community amenities such as playing areas, shops, or clinics, thus heightening tensions and distrust among residents.
Property regeneration projects lead to newcomers being attracted to the newly regenerated area which can push existing residents out of the area that was regenerated ‘for them’ or lead to tensions due to newcomers’ differing lifestyles and values.
Low political engagement among time-poor or less confident residents may hinder effective participation in planning processes.
Ethnic tensions and perceptions of power imbalances can exacerbate conflicts, particularly when certain groups feel marginalised or overlooked in regeneration strategies.
Some strategies receive more media coverage than others, in which case they may be open to more scrutiny, and, therefore, contestation. Such media coverage may be driven by pressure groups, such as anti-ULEZ (Ultra-Low Emissions Zone) campaigners in Greater London.

AO1 = 3 / AO2 = 3

Level	Marks	Description
	0	No rewardable material.
1	1–2	Demonstrates isolated or generic elements of geographical knowledge and understanding, some of which may be inaccurate or irrelevant. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding to geographical information inconsistently. Connections/relationships between stimulus material and the question may be irrelevant. (AO2)
2	3–4	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is mostly relevant and may include some inaccuracies. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding to geographical information to find some relevant connections/relationships between stimulus material and the question. (AO2)
3	5–6	Demonstrates accurate and relevant geographical knowledge and understanding throughout. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding to geographical information logically to find fully relevant connections/relationships between stimulus material and the question. (AO2)

Relevant content may include:

AO1

The rate and type of housing development directly impacts economic regeneration, and both are impacted by planning laws, which are aimed at balancing growth with environmental sustainability and community needs.
Relaxing planning laws can spur economic growth by attracting more workers to areas, but unchecked development risks sprawl and environmental degradation. Concerns over building on greenfield land is present in many UK cities.
Housing affordability remains a critical issue and it is closely related to planning laws and housing supply. While increased housing supply should lower prices, the rise in demand driven by demographic shifts and immigration often outpaces it, meaning that housing costs remain high.
Government interventions such as Help to Buy schemes and requirements for developers to build affordable housing aim to address affordability concerns. However, there is a lack of price controls on rents and political reluctance to challenge homeowner and landlord interests. Inclusive and affordable regeneration strategies are often challenged by this constraint, as shown by the expense of even ‘affordable’ housing in Queen Elizabeth Park, London.

AO2

As shown on the graph, completions of private housing were low in the late 1970s and early 2010s; this is linked to affordability issues (deindustrialisation in the late 1970s and the impacts of the Global Financial Crisis in the early 2010s).
The dominance of private housing construction, coupled with declining local authority housing (since the late 1970s, as shown in the graph) and limited affordability measures, exacerbates housing inequalities and affordability challenges, especially for low-income households and marginalised communities.
House building targets present challenges at the local level, where existing residents express concerns over loss of green space and community character. Despite government mandates to meet ambitious targets, deadlines have consistently been missed since 2007, therefore levels of house building have not reached the levels of the 1980s to early 2000s.
Postwar governments between the 1940s and 1970s prioritised housing large proportions of Britain’s population in affordable housing, usually provided by the local authority.

AO1 = 3 / AO2 = 3

Level	Marks	Description
	0	No rewardable material.
1	1–2	Demonstrates isolated or generic elements of geographical knowledge and understanding, some of which may be inaccurate or irrelevant. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding to geographical information inconsistently. Connections/relationships between stimulus material and the question may be irrelevant. (AO2)
2	3–4	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is mostly relevant and may include some inaccuracies. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding to geographical information to find some relevant connections/relationships between stimulus material and the question. (AO2)
3	5–6	Demonstrates accurate and relevant geographical knowledge and understanding throughout. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding to geographical information logically to find fully relevant connections/relationships between stimulus material and the question. (AO2)

Relevant content may include:

AO1

Changes to the living environment can influence economic vitality, social cohesion, and community wellbeing.
Laws and guidance, such as pedestrianisation, can improve quality of life. By encouraging people to walk and interact more freely, this promotes social connectivity and community engagement, fostering stronger bonds among residents and enhancing attachment to place.
Including benches and other areas where pedestrians can safely gather can not only contribute to a sense of belonging and collective identity, but also cultivate feelings of pride and ownership in the regenerated area, fostering a positive community spirit and reinforcing the success of regeneration efforts.
Although not shown in the photos, increasing and improving the provision of green space is another change to the living environment, which influences the success of regeneration. Green areas allow space for residents to relax, walk, etc. They can attract investment too, as they convey an impression that the natural and built environment is well cared for.

AO2

In the photo, wider pavements might enhance pedestrian accessibility, facilitating larger groups of visitors and promoting increased spending in local shops and restaurants. The resultant boost in economic activity not only stimulates business growth but also generates higher local business tax revenue, contributing to the overall financial sustainability of the area.
Cleaning up the brickwork, as shown in the photo, can attract more affluent shoppers and diners, fostering a vibrant and attractive urban ambience that further stimulates commercial activity and employment opportunities, thus reducing unemployment rates and enhancing economic resilience.
Adding double yellow lines, as shown in the photo, will result in cleaner air and less noise pollution, plus a feeling of pedestrian safety, which may drive footfall.

AO1 = 3 / AO2 = 3

Level	Marks	Description
	0	No rewardable material.
1	1–2	Demonstrates isolated or generic elements of geographical knowledge and understanding, some of which may be inaccurate or irrelevant. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding to geographical information inconsistently. Connections/relationships between stimulus material and the question may be irrelevant. (AO2)
2	3–4	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is mostly relevant and may include some inaccuracies. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding to geographical information to find some relevant connections/relationships between stimulus material and the question. (AO2)
3	5–6	Demonstrates accurate and relevant geographical knowledge and understanding throughout. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding to geographical information logically to find fully relevant connections/relationships between stimulus material and the question. (AO2)

Relevant content may include:

AO1

Some UK deindustrialised cities adopt diverse regeneration strategies for a number of geographical, economic, and social reasons which are place-specific, and which are shaped by their unique contexts.
Some schemes focus on infrastructure. For example, in the late 1980s, the UK government chose a comprehensive approach for the once-thriving industrial area of London’s Docklands, emphasising infrastructure development and attracting financial services. This strategy reflected London’s global economic role and the need to transition from traditional industries.
Some schemes hoped to attract industries back to their areas. This applies to a broad band of primarily urban areas in the north of England, from Liverpool to Hull, which sought funding for science and innovation, aimed at rebalancing the national economy. This strategy is rooted in addressing regional disparities and promoting economic growth beyond the capital, which have been hampered in recent decades by centralised decision-making.

Some deindustrialised cities have pursued cultural regeneration; this has been especially successful when such places make use of pre-existing cultural achievements. Liverpool leveraged its musical heritage, including The Beatles, to make a success of its year as the European City of Culture in 2008.
Some schemes focus on revitalising stretched transport infrastructure, such as High Speed 2, which has been championed by many businesses in Birmingham, and its mayor.

AO2

In the source, the decision-makers behind Leeds 2023 have tried to make the most of its pre-existing cultural institutions such as the Royal Armouries Museum and its ‘cultural quarter’.
The source is clear about its aim to ‘attract people and investment’ via the ‘soft’ route of persuasion.
‘Local pride’ is also given as a reason for the Year of Culture; some places may feel that their residents need a boost of pride to encourage an air of optimism, and to avoid out-migration.
The focus on ‘highbrow’ culture suggests an attempt to appeal to an economically affluent demographic.

AO1 = 6

Level	Marks	Description
	0	No rewardable material.
1	1–2	Demonstrates isolated elements of geographical knowledge and understanding, some of which may be inaccurate. (AO1) Understanding addresses a narrow range of geographical ideas, which lacks detail. (AO1)
2	3–4	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is mostly relevant and may include some inaccuracies. (AO1) Understanding addresses a range of geographical ideas, which are not fully detailed and/or developed. (AO1)
3	5–6	Demonstrates accurate and relevant geographical knowledge and understanding throughout. (AO1) Understanding addresses a broad range of geographical ideas, which are detailed and fully developed. (AO1)

Relevant content may include:

Everyone’s lived experience of a place is unique and will affect their attachment to a place and level of engagement with it.
Lived experience varies due to age and length of residence. Typically, younger residents and newer arrivals will be more likely to embrace more radical changes associated with regeneration. But, carefully handled, as in the case of Bradford’s City Park and its mirror pool, a broad range of people will be kept ‘on board’.
Typically, unless they see direct and significant changes in their quality of life and living standards, more deprived residents will be more sceptical of regeneration schemes.
Ethnicity and gender may also play a role in the perception of regeneration schemes.
When local landmarks are retained and celebrated, this often helps regeneration schemes to be accepted. This helped Sheffield’s residents to largely embrace the redevelopment of its famous Park Hill flat complex.
Regeneration programmes impact on people both in terms of their lived experience of change and their perception and attachment to the regenerated place.
Some candidates may explore one scheme in depth; for instance, the London Olympic Park regeneration. Stakeholders evaluate its success through varied lenses shaped by their priorities and lived experiences.
- ○ Economic indicators suggest success, with improved transport connections and forecasts of 20,000 jobs by 2030, and increased investments in local infrastructure. However, concerns persist regarding social and demographic outcomes, as only a fraction of the planned affordable housing has so far materialised, exacerbating affordability challenges for original residents.
- ○ Also, the regeneration’s social impact is perceived diversely. While initiatives like the East Bank and West Ham FC’s occupancy of the Olympic stadium evoke local pride and cultural vibrancy, challenges persist, such as stalled redevelopment plans for the Carpenters Estate.
- ○ Environmental successes, including expanded parkland and habitat restoration, contribute to improved air quality and ecological sustainability, yet the extent of environmental benefits may vary among stakeholders.
- ○ There are a wide variety of interest groups, including homeowners, renters, and older residents. Each group’s assessment of success will reflect their distinct perspectives, priorities, and lived realities. While international bodies like the International Olympic Committee commend the regeneration for fostering happier and healthier communities, critiques from remaining council tenants highlight displacement concerns and unmet expectations.

AO1 = 5 / AO2 = 15

Level	Marks	Description
	0	No rewardable material.
1	1–5	Demonstrates isolated elements of geographical knowledge and understanding, some of which may be inaccurate or irrelevant. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical ideas, making limited and rarely logical connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce an interpretation with limited coherence and support from evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce an unsupported or generic conclusion, drawn from an argument that is unbalanced or lacks coherence. (AO2)
2	6–10	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is occasionally relevant and may include some inaccuracies. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas with limited but logical connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical ideas in order to produce a partial interpretation that is supported by some evidence but has limited coherence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to come to a conclusion, partially supported by an unbalanced argument with limited coherence. (AO2)
3	11–15	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is mostly relevant and accurate. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to find some logical and relevant connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical ideas in order to produce a partial but coherent interpretation that is supported by some evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to come to a conclusion, largely supported by an argument that may be unbalanced or partially coherent. (AO2)
4	16–20	Demonstrates accurate and relevant geographical knowledge and understanding throughout. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to find fully logical and relevant connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce a full and coherent interpretation that is supported by evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to come to a rational, substantiated conclusion, fully supported by a balanced argument that is drawn together coherently. (AO2)

(Responses that demonstrate only AO1 without any AO2 should be awarded marks as follows: Level 1 AO1 performance: 1 mark; Level 2 AO1 performance: 2 marks; Level 3 AO1 performance: 3 marks; Level 4 AO1 performance: 4–5 marks.)

The indicative content below is not prescriptive and candidates are not required to include all of it. Other relevant material not suggested below must also be credited.

Relevant content may include:

AO1

National government decisions (policies) around immigration, financial regulations, and enterprise zones can affect the social and economic characteristics of urban and rural areas.
Social characteristics include health, education, and crime, as well as contributory factors such as diet, leisure, and access to public and active transport.
Economic characteristics include the productivity of an area, the split between small, medium, and large employees, and vacancy rates in business parks and/or retail areas
Socio-economic characteristics include employment: unemployment rates, employment structure (the split between primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary employment), the split of part-time vs full-time, and temporary (including ‘zero hours’) vs permanent contracts.

AO2

Candidates may argue that local government decisions are more plentiful and wider-ranging than national government decisions, and they may be better designed to fit local social and economic circumstances.
However, they are necessarily more spatially limited.
They may argue that national government decisions, backed up by more sweeping planning laws and larger funding pots, have a more profound and longer-lasting impact in certain areas (e.g. London 2012 Olympics; HS2; decisions about SEZs and highway construction).
However, national government actions are often longer in gestation, they may miss large swathes of the country, and they may be less sensitive to local specificities.
Decisions about international migration can promote or restrict growth and investment. Open-door policy (e.g. when the UK was part of the EU) leads to free movement of labour into the UK; EU labour filled skills gaps and worked for lower wages; increased tax revenue. Brexit led to a closed-door policy, shutting out EU workers and leading to shortage of workers in certain sectors (e.g. farm labourers and abattoir staff).
Decisions around financial regulation/deregulation can influence how many TNCs (transnational corporations) in the FBS (finance and business services) sector locate in the UK.
Candidates may refer to HS2, which will link London and Birmingham. More impact will be felt in Birmingham, as it is a smaller city with fewer major transport links. The proponents of HS2 argue that the economy of Birmingham will benefit as more companies will choose to locate there, as they will be able to have easier access to suppliers, customers, and finance from London. Others counter that Birmingham may suffer socially as more people may be tempted to commute from the city to London, reducing its business synergy, and eroding the sense of attachment that many may feel for the city, turning it more into a commuter satellite of the capital.
Other infrastructure projects, such as high-speed broadband, have been crucial to the economic success of many businesses in a wider range of cities.
Housing policy is a crucial way in which national government decisions impact the society of urban areas. Government targets (for example, to build 300,000 houses a year by 2030) and laws set the boundaries within which local housing decisions are made.
Large-scale social housing schemes, such as in the Gorbals in Glasgow, can help to counter post-industrial decline.
The continued preservation of ‘green belt’ land has resulted in increasing housing density, including suburban densification, as well as contributing to house price inflation.
National governments can also give tax breaks or other incentives to companies to encourage companies to invest in urban areas. These have had significant local success, but they have little influence over the structural, long-term reasons for regional inequalities, such as deindustrialisation, which has been hastened by automation and by the Global Shift.
Some local governments have been successful in setting in motion long-term projects to attract investment. For example, Cambridge City Council was instrumental in facilitating the city’s Science Park and St John’s Innovation Centre. These have helped to make it the most influential hub in the UK in terms of pharmaceuticals (for example, it hosts AstraZeneca), and one of the most influential in terms of IT. But the council has been less successful in keeping housing affordable for the resulting influx of workers and those in ancillary industries.
However, many local government regeneration efforts have been constrained by caps and cuts to their budget, especially since the austerity measures introduced in 2010 in the wake of the Global Financial Crisis. Many local government projects have instead become dependent on bidding processes for national funding, such as the Future High Streets Fund and for the UK City of Culture prize.
However, cities that have not secured funding from such schemes have tended to find their influence on social and economic characteristics has been restricted.

Example answer: Government decisions are crucial in determining the economic and social characteristics of urban areas. National government decisions affect the economic climate within which urban areas develop. National infrastructure projects impact on some cities more than others, while housing policy decisions can influence the attractiveness and affordability of housing, and incentives such as SEZs often sway business decision-makers. They also determine educational and training provision, and they decide the number and categories of migrants who are allowed to enter the country. Local governments work within the constraints of national government laws and funding: the latter has been cut since 2010, so they have less of an influence on urban areas than previously. However, they make the vast majority of planning decisions and influence many neighbourhood and city centre plans.

National governments make decisions on large-scale infrastructure projects which will affect urban areas to varying degrees. A high-speed railway line (HS2) will link London and Birmingham by the mid 2030s, and it will directly influence both economies, although more impact will be felt in Birmingham, as it is a smaller city with fewer major transport links. The proponents of HS2 argue that the economy of Birmingham will benefit as more companies will choose to locate there, as they will be able to have easier access to suppliers, customers, and finance from London. Others counter that Birmingham may suffer socially as more people may be tempted to commute from the city to London, reducing its business synergy, and eroding the sense of attachment that many may feel for the city, turning it more into a commuter satellite of the capital. Other infrastructure projects, such as high-speed broadband, have been crucial to the economic success of many businesses in a wider range of cities.

Housing policy is a crucial way in which national government decisions impact the society of urban areas. Government targets (e.g. to build 300,000 houses a year by 2030) and laws set the boundaries within which local housing decisions are made; these mainly impact big housebuilding firms such as Redrow and Persimmon. In another example, the Scottish government has backed large-scale housing schemes, such as in the Gorbals in Glasgow, which has seen a reversal of its post-industrial decline. However, the continued preservation of ‘green belt’ land has resulted in increasing housing density, including suburban densification, as well as contributing to house price inflation.

National governments can also give tax breaks or other incentives to companies to encourage companies to invest in urban areas. For example, Enterprise Zones (EZs), which have operated in England since 2011. These involve the government giving business rate discounts of up to 100% over a five-year period, allowances for capital costs, and simplified planning laws, in 48 EZs (for example, Aire Valley, Leeds). The success of these zones has been shown by their adoption by devolved administrations in Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland. However, they have little influence over the structural, long-term reasons for regional inequalities, such as deindustrialisation, which has been hastened by automation and by the Global Shift. Investment in infrastructure and businesses in areas outside of London and the South-East also continues to be far lower than that enjoyed by the capital, with knock-on impacts on economic and social indicators.

Local governments are keen to maintain or grow their economies. Some have been successful in setting in train long-term projects to attract investment. For example, Cambridge City Council was instrumental in facilitating the city’s Science Park and St John’s Innovation Centre. These have helped to make it the most influential hub in the UK in terms of pharmaceuticals (for example, it hosts AstraZeneca), and one of the most influential in terms of IT. But the council has been less successful in keeping housing affordable for the resulting influx of workers and those in ancillary industries. This challenge has also been faced by Newham Borough Council, who, in partnership with the London Legacy Development Corporation, has developed the Queen Elizabeth Olympic Park in London. While large organisations, such as University College London, and the Victoria and Albert Museum, have been attracted to the site, and unemployment levels have fallen, housing remains unaffordable for many residents.

However, many local government regeneration efforts have been constrained by caps and cuts to their budget, especially since the austerity measures introduced in 2010 in the wake of the Global Financial Crisis. Many local government projects have instead become dependent on bidding processes for national funding, such as the Future High Streets Fund and for the UK City of Culture prize. Bradford, West Yorkshire, was successful in winning funding of £10 million to become 2025 City of Culture, leading to growth in the cultural and hospitality sectors and the creation of up to 7,000 new jobs. However, cities that have not secured funding from such schemes have tended to find their influence on social and economic characteristics has been restricted.

Although I have argued that national government decisions are more influential than those of local government, at least three other factors, operating at scales other than national or local, also affect the economies and societies of cities. One is a shift towards regional decision-making bodies, such as regional and city mayors’ offices, often tasked with transport and other infrastructure briefs. Another is the impact of private corporations, including technology companies, on governmental policy. And third are international decisions that influence government policies. This includes agreements made at climate and biodiversity conferences. It is also difficult to determine the relative impact of decisions made by different layers of government in a complex and dynamic social and economic climate.

AO1 = 5 / AO2 = 15

Level	Marks	Description
	0	No rewardable material.
1	1–5	Demonstrates isolated elements of geographical knowledge and understanding, some of which may be inaccurate or irrelevant. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical ideas, making limited and rarely logical connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce an interpretation with limited coherence and support from evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce an unsupported or generic conclusion, drawn from an argument that is unbalanced or lacks coherence. (AO2)
2	6–10	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is occasionally relevant and may include some inaccuracies. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas with limited but logical connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical ideas in order to produce a partial interpretation that is supported by some evidence but has limited coherence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to come to a conclusion, partially supported by an unbalanced argument with limited coherence. (AO2)
3	11–15	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is mostly relevant and accurate. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to find some logical and relevant connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical ideas in order to produce a partial but coherent interpretation that is supported by some evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to come to a conclusion, largely supported by an argument that may be unbalanced or partially coherent. (AO2)
4	16–20	Demonstrates accurate and relevant geographical knowledge and understanding throughout. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to find fully logical and relevant connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce a full and coherent interpretation that is supported by evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to come to a rational, substantiated conclusion, fully supported by a balanced argument that is drawn together coherently. (AO2)

The indicative content below is not prescriptive and candidates are not required to include all of it. Other relevant material not suggested below must also be credited.

Relevant content may include:

AO1

The success of regeneration is often viewed differently by individuals and groups of stakeholders.
Stakeholders in urban regeneration include planners, national and local governments, individuals, local businesses and residents.
Each stakeholder will have different viewpoints. Local residents may oppose regeneration because investment may lead to gentrification displacing them from their homes. Conflict may arise between these and planners who are fond of regeneration because it may be profitable for them in the future.
Different stakeholders will assess success using contrasting criteria; their views will depend on the meaning and lived experiences of an urban place and the impact of change caused by regeneration strategies.
Different stakeholders may also have contrasting views on changes to the image of a place as a result of regeneration. The experiences of place and how the role and function of a particular place is perceived will influence assessment of regeneration successes.
There are likely to be differences between the views of local and national governments, local businesses, environmentalists and residents. This demonstrates how different urban stakeholders have different criteria for assessing the success of urban regeneration.

AO2

The regeneration of Salford Quays is an example outlining strategies used in the regeneration of an urban place and the contested nature of these decisions within local communities.
Once a thriving industrial port, by the 1980s the area was derelict.
Salford Quays Development Plan (1985-95) – development of former industrial land by Salford City Council and private investors; opening of attractions such as the Lowry theatre and gallery and the Imperial War Museum North; development of MediaCity UK (2007-2011) for media business including the BBC.
Assessment of success is contested: residential apartments developed are too expensive for local residents and many have been bought by overseas investors; very few of the jobs in the new developments (including Media City) have gone to local residents; some local landmarks have been destroyed in the development, condemned by local historians and residents.
It is possible to see Salford Quays from many different viewpoints because different stakeholders have different desired outcomes from regeneration:
- ○ local council wants to attract investment, so prioritise attractive buildings and heritage. They may measure success through number of jobs created, reduction in derelict land, IMD data
- ○ existing residents want better housing, community facilities, improved built environment and job opportunities. Success might be measured through increased income, better health outcomes and increased life expectancy, better access to services.
- ○ property developers aim to maximise profit including sales and rental values, they will value improved image to drive sales. Success may be measured through number of investors, land value and profit.
- ○ local businesses may want an increased local population (customers). Measures of success may include a rising population (especially of young people) and increased turnover.
- ○ national government wants regeneration that aligns with national priorities and increased affluence (leading to a reduction in benefit-dependency)

AO1 = 5 / AO2 = 15

Level	Marks	Description
Level 1	1–5	Demonstrates isolated elements of geographical knowledge and understanding, some of which may be inaccurate or irrelevant. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical ideas, making limited and rarely logical connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce an interpretation with limited coherence and support from evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce an unsupported or generic conclusion, drawn from an argument that is unbalanced or lacks coherence. (AO2)
Level 2	6–10	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is occasionally relevant and may include some inaccuracies. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas with limited but logical connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical ideas in order to produce a partial interpretation that is supported by some evidence but has limited coherence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to come to a conclusion, partially supported by an unbalanced argument with limited coherence. (AO2)
Level 3	11–15	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is mostly relevant and accurate. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to find some logical and relevant connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical ideas in order to produce a partial but coherent interpretation that is supported by some evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to come to a conclusion, largely supported by an argument that may be unbalanced or partially coherent. (AO2)
Level 4	16–20	Demonstrates accurate and relevant geographical knowledge and understanding throughout. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to find fully logical and relevant connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce a full and coherent interpretation that is supported by evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to come to a rational, substantiated conclusion, fully supported by a balanced argument that is drawn together coherently. (AO2)

Relevant content may include:

AO1

There is a range of ways to evaluate the need for regeneration.
Statistical evidence can be used to determine the need for regeneration in your chosen local place. This might include census data, the Index of Multiple Deprivation, and Police statistics.
Different broadcast media can provide contrasting evidence, questioning the need for regeneration in your chosen local place. This media might include local, regional and national news websites, newspapers, TV and radio stations.
Other media may include photography, literature, diaries, blogs, and formal and informal art (including street art).
Different representations of your chosen local place could influence the perceived need for regeneration.
Candidates may introduce primary data from visits to their local place.

AO2

Candidates may argue that statistical evidence can be useful for a broad overview of the area and may allow for comparison with other areas (or indeed to track how the local area might change over time). This includes studies such as:
- ○ If the focus of regeneration is social sustainability, geographical ideas may include reference to the Egan Wheel or the Project for Public Spaces
- ○ If the focus of regeneration is environmental quality, geographical ideas may include reference to the Local Environmental Quality Survey (DEFRA/Keep Britain Tidy)
- ○ If the focus of regeneration is retail health, geographical ideas may include reference to the New Economics Foundation’s ‘Clone Town Survey’
- ○ If the focus of regeneration is health, geographical ideas may include reference to the Royal Society for Public Health’s ‘Richter Scale for Health’.
However, such evidence is reductive (simplistic) and it may not cover all aspects of what may be considered to reflect residents’ lived experience, and the reactions of visitors to the area. To be able to understand these angles, qualitative techniques may be used.
Geographical ideas may include reference to:
- ○ placemaking studies, based on the work of Jane Jacobs
- ○ spaciousness, based on the work of Yi-Fu Tuan
- ○ social inclusion/exclusion, based on the work of Tim Cresswell.
Candidates may reflect on the fact that qualitative evidence is subjective and may be difficult to generalise and replicate, therefore making it difficult for key players in regeneration to determine priorities for regeneration for the area.
However, it does allow players to develop a ‘richer’ sense of place and arguably be more likely to produce plans which involve local residents, including those who may normally not have much of a say in regeneration.
Candidates may evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of primary and secondary evidence.
Candidates may evaluate the validity of evidence produced by local and national government bodies, private organisations, charities, NGOs, pressure groups and so on.
Answers should include reference to detailed place-specific evidence from the candidate’s local area. High level answers may include key statistical snapshots such as reference to deciles of deprivation, as well as qualitative evidence such as quotations or rich descriptions of local places.

Chapter 6

All exemplar answers given are likely to be in the top mark band.

Questions 1–6 are point-marked.

AO1 = 2 / AO2 = 1
Award 1 mark for analysing the resource to identify a reason why the speaker may have different perceptions of different parts of London and a further 2 marks for expansion, up to a maximum of 3 marks.

Relevant content may include:
- The speaker is positive about the place she grew up in: she refers to her ‘roots’ (1) which indicates that she has a positive perception of a place she is familiar with (1), perhaps because of family connections (‘My husband is South London’) (1).
- The speaker is positive about places that are most ethnically mixed (‘it’s so multicultural. And so diverse’) (1), perhaps because as a member of an ethnic minority she wants to know that she is not alone (1), perhaps for reasons of psychological or physical security (1), or because of the culturally specific services of such areas (1).
- The speaker used to be wary (‘a little bit scary’) of the outskirts of London because she thought that they may be less multicultural (1) and so she may not fit in (‘Am I going to see people like me?’) (1), perhaps worrying about being singled out for looking different to other residents (1).
- The speaker is now more positive about the outskirts of London because she feels that she fits in (‘it’s okay, we’re gonna be okay’) (1). She can let herself be more closely attached to the place (1) and therefore make her home there (1).
Example answer: The speaker is positive about places that are most ethnically mixed (‘it’s so multicultural. And so diverse’), perhaps because as a member of an ethnic minority she wants to know that she is not alone, perhaps for reasons of psychological or physical security, or because of the culturally specific services of such areas.
AO1 = 3
Award 1 mark for analysing the resource to identify one reason why ethnic diversity varies in different parts of the UK and a further 2 marks for expansion, up to a maximum of 3 marks.

Relevant content may include:
- Social clustering (a preference for living close to people you wish to be with) (1). This may be by choice, to share community facilities (1), such as shops, food outlets, places of worship, or community centres (1), or it may be as a protection from racism (1). It also allows language and customs to be maintained (1). For example, when many Ugandan Asians settled in Leicester (East Midlands) in the 1970s and 80s (1).
- Accessibility to key cities, which have higher employment opportunities (1), or did so when certain waves of migration occurred (1). For example, northern textile cities and Midlands engineering and manufacturing cities (1), such as Pakistanis in Birmingham (West Midlands) in the 1960s and 70s (1).
- Government planning policy (1). After the Second World War, the UK government sponsored job advertisements abroad and agreed immigration targets (1), to fill labour gaps in the NHS, factories, and public transport (1). These labour gaps were mainly located in larger cities, such as London and Birmingham (West Midlands) (1).
AO1 = 3
Award 1 mark for a reason why fertility rates vary between places and 2 marks for an expansion of that reason (1 mark of which could be an example).

Relevant content may include:
- Fertility rates in rural areas tend to be lower (1), as there are fewer people of childrearing age (1), as many young people leave rural areas to seek improved employment opportunities (1).
Cultural norms develop over time (1), and a large proportion of members of an ethnic or socio-economic group tend to follow such norms. These norms can include family expectations and histories (1), or religious reasons (1).
AO1 = 2 / AO2 = 1
Award 1 mark for analysing the resource to identify one reason for why some suburban areas are perceived differently by contrasting demographic groups and a further 2 marks for expansion, up to a maximum of 3 marks.

Relevant content may include:
- Some ‘Friends’ groups, likely to be dominated by older members of the community, prefer suburban parks to be peaceful retreats (1), whereas many younger people tend to gather in large groups (1) and play ‘loud music… late at night’ (1). The latter is characterised as ‘anti-social behaviour’ by many older residents (1).
- Members of the community who do not drink or take drugs may want to exclude drinkers or drug-users from suburban communal spaces (1), because of their association with ‘litter associated with drinking and drug-taking’ (1), whereas some suburban residents in their older teens and 20s may want to use such places to socialise (1).
- Environmentalists, who would like suburban parks to be safe areas for wildlife (1), will object to ‘litter associated with drinking and drug-taking’ and ‘loud music… late at night’, as they will interfere with plant and animal habitats (1), as opposed to many younger suburban residents who prioritise meeting up in communal land (1), which may be rare in some higher-density suburban areas.
AO1 = 3
Award 1 mark for a reason why some rural locations are seen as undesirable by outsiders and 2 marks for an expansion of that reason (1 mark of which could be an example).

Relevant content may include:
- Remoteness and isolation (1): difficulties in accessing essential services (such as healthcare and education) and job opportunities (1), which may put off people seeking work or with complex health needs (1).
- Limited social opportunities: fewer social activities/cultural events (1) lead to a perception of limited entertainment options (1), which may put off younger and/or more gregarious people from visiting or settling (1).
- High transport costs (1) and/or poor public transport links (1) means that it is often seen to be necessary to own a car to maintain flexibility and access services and a good standard of life (1), which may put off non-drivers and those with limited incomes (1).

Questions 7–16 are level-marked.

AO1 = 6

Level	Marks	Description
	0	No rewardable material.
1	1–2	Demonstrates isolated elements of geographical knowledge and understanding, some of which may be inaccurate. (AO1) Understanding addresses a narrow range of geographical ideas, which lacks detail. (AO1)
2	3–4	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is mostly relevant and may include some inaccuracies. (AO1) Understanding addresses a range of geographical ideas which are not fully detailed and/or developed. (AO1)
3	5–6	Demonstrates accurate and relevant geographical knowledge and understanding throughout. (AO1) Understanding addresses a broad range of geographical ideas, which are detailed and fully developed. (AO1)

Relevant content may include:

Perceptions of urban areas have changed over time, shaped by historical and contemporary factors.
During industrialisation, working-class areas of manufacturing cities (e.g. Manchester and London) were perceived by the urban middle class to be dangerous and threatening due to overcrowding, unsanitary living conditions, and social inequalities resulting from rapid urbanisation.
These perceptions were accentuated by their portrayal in works of fiction (e.g. Hard Times by Charles Dickens).
The perception of certain urban areas as undesirable or threatening persists in some instances. This is influenced by awareness of, and sometimes lived experience of, high crime rates and low environmental quality.
Some groups such as older residents of some inner-city areas may be afraid to leave their homes at night, feeling threatened or disturbed by the noisy and lively behaviour of younger groups of residents who tend to live in these areas.
Media narratives also shape the reputation of urban locations, impacting how they are perceived by different groups in society. For example, Notting Hill, London, which attracts disproportionate attention in some sections of the popular press for the number of arrests at its carnival, compared to the positive aspects of the festival.
Television documentaries such as ‘Benefits Street’ also emphasise stereotypes of areas as being morally undesirable.
Suburban areas may be seen as undesirable by groups who perceive them as being bland and less likely to have the vibrancy and youth of areas closer to the centre of cities.

Example answer: Urban areas have undergone evolving perceptions over time, shaped by historical and contemporary factors. During industrialisation, working-class areas of manufacturing cities, such as Manchester and London, were perceived by many members of the urban middle class to be dangerous and threatening due to overcrowding, unsanitary conditions, and social inequalities resulting from rapid urbanisation. These perceptions were accentuated by their portrayal in works of fiction such as Hard Times by Charles Dickens.

The perception of certain urban areas as undesirable or threatening persists in some instances, influenced by awareness of, and sometimes lived experience of, high crime rates and low environmental quality. Older residents of some inner-city areas in particular may be afraid to leave their homes at night, feeling threatened or disturbed by the noisy and lively behaviour of younger groups of residents.

Media narratives also shape the reputation of urban locations, impacting how they are perceived by different groups in society. An example might be Notting Hill, in London, which attracts disproportionate attention in some sections of the popular press for the number of arrests at its carnival, compared to the positive aspects of the festival. Television documentaries such as ‘Benefits Street‘ also play on stereotypes of areas as being morally undesirable.

AO1 = 6

Level	Marks	Description
	0	No rewardable material.
1	1–2	Demonstrates isolated elements of geographical knowledge and understanding, some of which may be inaccurate or irrelevant. (AO1) Understanding addresses a narrow range of geographical ideas, which lacks detail. (AO1)
2	3–4	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is mostly relevant and may include some inaccuracies. (AO1) Understanding addresses a range of geographical ideas which are not fully detailed and/or developed. (AO1)
3	5–6	Demonstrates accurate and relevant geographical knowledge and understanding throughout. (AO1) Understanding addresses a broad range of geographical ideas, which are detailed and fully developed. (AO1)

Relevant content may include:

Changes to the built environment can provide opportunities (benefits) and challenges (disadvantages) to different groups of local people and impact their lived experience.
Community-group led changes in land use (e.g. construction of a new place of worship) will help encourage deeper geographical roots and a sense of belonging in a place for members of the particular religious community, but also engender feelings of displacement among non-members. For example, Leeds Grand Mosque.
Local government interventions (e.g. low- traffic neighbourhoods (LTNs)) provide opportunities to reduce air pollution, promote active lifestyles, and enhance street-level interactions. However, they can provoke resistance from residents who are inconvenienced by altered traffic patterns.
National government initiatives (e.g. 2020 Town and Country Planning Order) play a key role in shaping urban landscapes and driving economic development. Fast-tracked demolishing and reconstruction of buildings facilitates modernisation and creates jobs in construction sectors. However, the rapid pace of urban redevelopment may result in the loss of historical landmarks and disruption to local businesses.

The activities of transnational corporations (TNCs), such as the expansion of banks in Canary Wharf in London, have contributed to improved built environments, job creation, and increased tax revenues, but may also exacerbate social inequalities and spatial disparities, as evidenced by limited opportunities for local residents to access well-paid jobs. Land use changes such as these can create tension and conflict.

AO1 = 3 / AO2 = 3

Level	Marks	Description
	0	No rewardable material.
1	1–2	Demonstrates isolated or generic elements of geographical knowledge and understanding, some of which may be inaccurate or irrelevant. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding to geographical information inconsistently. Connections/relationships between stimulus material and the question may be irrelevant. (AO2)
2	3–4	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is mostly relevant and may include some inaccuracies. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding to geographical information to find some relevant connections/relationships between stimulus material and the question. (AO2)
3	5–6	Demonstrates accurate and relevant geographical knowledge and understanding throughout. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding to geographical information logically to find fully relevant connections/relationships between stimulus material and the question. (AO2)

Relevant content may include:

AO1

Perceptions of a place can vary greatly due to age, whether a person is a visitor or resident, and people’s ethnic background. These categories overlap, making judgements complex.
Age may be a reason for varying perceptions. Some younger people may view the area positively as a place to explore; others may view the area negatively as a place that might bore them owing to a lack of facilities, such as shopping, leisure/social meeting places.
Older people may view Conistone and the surrounding area as a nice, quiet place to visit or live in, while others may consider it to be isolated and lacking the amenities they need locally, such as a doctor’s surgery, supermarket, etc.
People who live in urban or rural settings may also have differing views of this rural place. Some urban visitors may find the place exciting as it provides a contrast to their neighbourhood, but others may find this contrast overwhelming.
Residents may have a different perception of a place from visitors. Residents may have a deep sense of place attachment to this village; other residents may be torn between embracing rural traditions and wishing to escape them.
Members of ethnic minority groups may feel challenged by the sense of ‘whiteness’, which some say characterises rural areas, so may not feel welcome here; others may be motivated to experience the rural idyll, which may be different from their home neighbourhood.

AO2

Conistone appears to be a small village with just a few dozen buildings. Therefore, it is unlikely to provide the social breadth and variety that younger generations may seek.
The small size may appeal to older generations, who may like its compactness. However, those who have mobility challenges may be concerned about the difficulty of accessing services such as healthcare and retail.
Places to explore for adventurous types of all ages include the track in the foreground (walking/mountain biking) and the open fell in the background (walking/fell running/orienteering).
Sheep farmers, who have an older age profile than the UK average, may perceive the area shown, with its green fields and scattered farm buildings, as representing both home/a reminder of their heritage, and as a source of income.
Visitors from other rural areas in the Yorkshire Dales may find Conistone either attractive or boring due to its likeness to home.

AO1 = 6

Level	Marks	Description
	0	No rewardable material.
1	1–2	Demonstrates isolated elements of geographical knowledge and understanding, some of which may be inaccurate or irrelevant. (AO1) Understanding addresses a narrow range of geographical ideas, which lacks detail. (AO1)
2	3–4	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is mostly relevant and may include some inaccuracies. (AO1) Understanding addresses a range of geographical ideas which are not fully detailed and/or developed. (AO1)
3	5–6	Demonstrates accurate and relevant geographical knowledge and understanding throughout. (AO1) Understanding addresses a broad range of geographical ideas, which are detailed and fully developed. (AO1)

Relevant content may include:

A decline in fertility rates may lead to smaller family sizes, leading to closure of schools, which are often key hubs of community cohesion (e.g. by promoting multiculturalism and diversity).
A decline in fertility rates in rural areas might make it hard to maintain social infrastructure, such as schools and healthcare facilities, making the area less attractive to families. This might result in less vibrant and lively places.
In some diverse urban places, higher fertility rates might lead to higher demand for housing and services, which might drive up prices. This might mean less disposable income to spend on cultural enrichment such as sports and leisure activities. Alternatively, it may increase the amount of money spent in an area, leading to a higher tax take for the council, which it could spend on cultural offerings such as festivals.

AO1 = 6

Level	Marks	Description
	0	No rewardable material.
1	1–2	Demonstrates isolated elements of geographical knowledge and understanding, some of which may be inaccurate. (AO1) Understanding addresses a narrow range of geographical ideas, which lacks detail. (AO1)
2	3–4	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is mostly relevant and may include some inaccuracies. (AO1) Understanding addresses a range of geographical ideas which are not fully detailed and/or developed. (AO1)
3	5–6	Demonstrates accurate and relevant geographical knowledge and understanding throughout. (AO1) Understanding addresses a broad range of geographical ideas, which are detailed and fully developed. (AO1)

Relevant content may include:

A combination of local, regional, and national media, together with primary data, will be able to help in an evaluation of how an area is seen by different groups of people.
Statistical evidence can be used. Local authorities will often commission reports that contain detailed and localised statistical evidence.
Such statistical, quantitative evidence tends to have a wide coverage, but will be limited in its depth and nuance.
For example, Southend-on-Sea City Council’s 2021 ‘Residents’ Perception Survey’. Such statistical, quantitative evidence tends to have a wide coverage, but will be limited in its depth and nuance.
Qualitative evidence includes primary evidence such as interviews and soundscape surveys, and it will also include an examination of how different media portray images of an area.
For example, national media tend to ignore Southend-on-Sea, but some attention has been paid by the Arts sections of the national media to the seaside town’s annual street art festival, which gives it an edgy, fashionable, young image. Local newspapers such as the Southend Echo report community events, celebrate local areas, and highlight local issues.
Social media can tend to sensationalise places, but it can be valuable as such views are still those of residents. However, its usage might sideline the perceptions of those residents with ‘neutral’ or ‘middle ground’ views.
Photography can highlight the human angle, showing unusual events in the town, while a place’s artworks, specifically street art, can highlight issues facing local people, specifically younger people.
Graffiti may provide clues about local issues, ‘gangs’, and points of conflict or celebration.
The answer will be dependent on the chosen place.

AO1 = 6

Level	Marks	Description
	0	No rewardable material.
1	1–2	Demonstrates isolated elements of geographical knowledge and understanding, some of which may be inaccurate. (AO1) Understanding addresses a narrow range of geographical ideas, which lacks detail. (AO1)
2	3–4	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is mostly relevant and may include some inaccuracies. (AO1) Understanding addresses a range of geographical ideas which are not fully detailed and/or developed. (AO1)
3	5–6	Demonstrates accurate and relevant geographical knowledge and understanding throughout. (AO1) Understanding addresses a broad range of geographical ideas, which are detailed and fully developed. (AO1)

Relevant content may include:

Tranquil environments: lower population density means less noise and pollution.
Natural landscapes: they may appear ‘natural’, but most rural areas in the UK have been cleared of forests and are intensively managed by humans (e.g. Lake District).
Historical significance: preserved architecture, ancient ruins, and heritage sites inspire nostalgia and romanticism.
Cultural associations: traditional ways of life foster a sense of cultural authenticity.
Sense of community: smaller populations and tight-knit communities (social cohesion).
Connection to nature: through outdoor activities like hiking, fishing, and stargazing.
Cleaner air and environment: few manufacturing industries so a healthier and more appealing environment.
Art and literature: Hardy’s ‘Wessex’.

AO1 = 6

Level	Marks	Description
	0	No rewardable material.
1	1–2	Demonstrates isolated elements of geographical knowledge and understanding, some of which may be inaccurate. (AO1) Understanding addresses a narrow range of geographical ideas, which lacks detail. (AO1)
2	3–4	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is mostly relevant and may include some inaccuracies. (AO1) Understanding addresses a range of geographical ideas which are not fully detailed and/or developed. (AO1)
3	5–6	Demonstrates accurate and relevant geographical knowledge and understanding throughout. (AO1) Understanding addresses a broad range of geographical ideas, which are detailed and fully developed. (AO1)

Relevant content may include:

Population density varies according to placement in the rural-urban continuum: places tend to become less densely populated as you move from the inner city to remote rural locations, with the exception of city centres (CBDs).
In the CBD: few residents as the area is mainly commercial, retail, and hospitality. There are some city centre residents, mostly in flats, sometimes dating from the 1980s renewal projects (e.g. urban development corporations).
Inner city: highest density as a result of industries and terraced housing from the Industrial Revolution era (proximity to factories, within walking distance), post-war immigration, and planning restraints of the green belt (outside built-up areas) which forced developers and councils to build in inner cities.
Suburbs: medium density. A mixture of private and local authority housing, often dating from hubs of mass transit systems (e.g. underground, trams, suburban trains, and bus routes), and later expansion and infilling from car users. Private developers are attracted by the high profits from high demand, often from families. Suburbs also contain villages and towns incorporated by urban sprawl.
Rural-urban fringe: low density, mostly around old market towns and train stations, then later growth due to car ownership. This area is restrained due to green belt policies. Historically home to commuters (‘dormitory settlements’).
Remote rural areas: some popular larger towns, still growing due to families, affluent residents, and retirees looking for a more pleasant living environment (clean air and green space). Some villages are experiencing depopulation.

AO1 = 5 / AO2 = 15

Level	Marks	Description
	0	No rewardable material.
1	1–5	Demonstrates isolated elements of geographical knowledge and understanding, some of which may be inaccurate or irrelevant. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical ideas, making limited and rarely logical connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce an interpretation with limited coherence and support from evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce an unsupported or generic conclusion, drawn from an argument that is unbalanced or lacks coherence. (AO2)
2	6–10	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is occasionally relevant and may include some inaccuracies. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas with limited but logical connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical ideas in order to produce a partial interpretation that is supported by some evidence but has limited coherence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to come to a conclusion, partially supported by an unbalanced argument with limited coherence. (AO2)
3	11–15	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is mostly relevant and accurate. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to find some logical and relevant connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical ideas in order to produce a partial but coherent interpretation that is supported by some evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to come to a conclusion, largely supported by an argument that may be unbalanced or partially coherent. (AO2)
4	16–20	Demonstrates accurate and relevant geographical knowledge and understanding throughout. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to find fully logical and relevant connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce a full and coherent interpretation that is supported by evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to come to a rational, substantiated conclusion, fully supported by a balanced argument that is drawn together coherently. (AO2)

Relevant content may include:

AO1

International migration tends to be the main reason why the population of ‘global cities’ like London tend to vary.
The populations of some smaller cities in the UK are also heavily influenced by international migration, particularly since the 1950s.
Most rural areas have seen relatively limited international migration.
Some rural areas, particularly those whose economies are based on fruit and vegetable cultivation, have seen significant levels of international migration, especially since the free movement of labour from Eastern Europe expanded since 2006.
Internal migration is also a key factor in why places vary. Typically, cities, especially those with many higher education institutions, have larger populations of younger people compared to rural areas.

AO2

London, as a global city, epitomises the profound impact of international migration on demographic characteristics. The city’s population diversity is intricately linked to historical and recent influxes of immigrants seeking economic opportunities, refuge from oppression, cultural vibrancy, and cosmopolitan lifestyles.
For instance, neighbourhoods such as Spitalfields in East London have witnessed significant demographic shifts due to waves of international migration (Huguenots in the seventeenth century, Irish in the mid-nineteenth, Eastern European Jewish immigrants in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, and Bangladeshis in the late twentieth century).
Nevertheless, internal migration has also fed into London’s growth. While this peaked in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, in line with the economic opportunities afforded by the Industrial Revolution, it has persisted today.
A significant proportion of London’s population in their 20s and 30s consists of well-educated British migrants, seeking well-paid and highly skilled jobs, together with a wealth of social opportunities (the so-called ‘bright lights’ of the city).
A key difference between domestic and international migrants is that these internal migrants are more likely to leave the city later in life, either to settlements within commuting distance, or to other regions of the UK, often co-incident with raising a family or buying a house.
In urban areas further from the core, such as Birmingham, Manchester, or Bradford, international migration remains a significant factor, but these influxes tend to be from a somewhat narrower range of countries, and they have tended to have occurred in more recent decades compared to London.
Birmingham and Manchester, for example, have significant populations of first-, second-, and third-generation Caribbean and Asian migrants, coinciding with the need for workers in industry, transport, and healthcare sectors in the late 1940s to the 1970s.
Pakistanis and their descendants and extended family members form the largest group of Bradford’s Asian communities, and roughly 90% of them have their roots in and around the Mirpur District.
Nevertheless, in such cities, other influences like internal migration also come to the forefront. For example, Manchester largely grew owing to internal migration patterns from surrounding rural areas, peaking in the nineteenth century, driven by factors like employment opportunities and lifestyle choices.
Natural population change was a significant contributor to population change across the UK in the 1700s to 1800s, as family sizes remained high and life expectancies rose.
Today, in accordance with the demographic transition model, natural population change plays a very small role in the variation of the populations of UK areas: the average fertility rate is just 1.61. The interplay between international migration and fertility rates is, nevertheless, significant: in 2021, the fertility rate for UK-born women was 1.54, while for non-UK-born women it was 2.03.
In rural areas, international migration is typically a minor factor in population fluctuations. Such population dynamics are more significantly shaped by rural-to-urban migration: many villages, particularly in remote areas, experience depopulation due to the outmigration of young people in search of urban opportunities and lifestyle preferences.
Notable exceptions to this rule do exist: some rural areas of East Anglia and Lincolnshire, plus some tourist hotspots such as the Lake District, have seen a significant influx of Eastern Europeans since the accession of such countries into the EU since 2004. Such groups have mostly travelled in order to work in fruit and vegetable picking and packing, but also in hospitality and other industries.
The Brexit vote has led to some reversal of these trends, but the Lincolnshire town of Boston shows that international migration has had a profound impact on its demography: in 2021, 25% of its population were born outside of the UK, with 18% coming from Eastern European countries.
Candidates may conclude by stating that while international migration is indeed the primary driver of population variations in London and major UK cities, its influence diminishes in urban areas further from the core and is seldom the main factor in rural population dynamics.
Candidates may note that as the UK continues to be an attractive destination for international and internal migrants (the UK recorded record rates of immigration in 2022), fertility rates look unlikely to rise to replacement levels, and chain migration continues to operate. It seems that the influence of international migration is likely to continue to rise.

Example answer: I will argue that whilst international migration is the main reason why the population of London, and most large UK cities varies, it is much less influential in most urban areas further from the core of the country, and it is rarely the main reason why rural populations vary.

London, as a global city, epitomises the profound impact of international migration on demographic characteristics. The city’s population diversity is intricately linked to historical and recent influxes of immigrants seeking economic opportunities, refuge from oppression, cultural vibrancy, and cosmopolitan lifestyles. For instance, neighbourhoods such as Spitalfields in East London have witnessed significant demographic shifts due to waves of international migration. In the 17th century, Spitalfields was known for its Huguenot community – French Protestant refugees who sought asylum in England. Over time, as their economic conditions improved, the Huguenots moved out, and many Irish, escaping the potato famine in the mid-19th century, replaced them. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Eastern European Jewish immigrants, fleeing persecution in their homelands, settled in Spitalfields. By the mid-20th century, many Jewish residents had moved to other parts of London, and the Bangladeshi community began to establish itself.

Nevertheless, internal migration has also fed into London’s growth. Whilst this peaked in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, in line with the economic opportunities afforded by the Industrial Revolution, it has persisted today, with a significant proportion of London’s population in their twenties and thirties consisting of well-educated British migrants, seeking well-paid and highly skilled jobs, together with a wealth of social opportunities – the so-called ‘bright lights’ of the city. A key difference between domestic and international migrants is that these internal migrants are more likely to leave the city later in life, either to settlements within commuting distance, or to other regions of the UK, often co-incident with raising a family or buying a house.

In urban areas further from the core, such as Birmingham, Manchester, or Bradford, international migration remains a significant factor, but these influxes tend to be from a somewhat narrower range of countries, and they have tended to have occurred in more recent decades compared to London. Birmingham and Manchester, for example, have significant populations of first- second- and third- generation Caribbean and Asian migrants, coinciding with the need for workers in industry, transport and healthcare sectors in the late 1940s to the 1970s.

Pakistanis and their descendants and extended family members form the largest group of Bradford’s Asian communities, and roughly 90% of them have their roots in and around the Mirpur District. Mirpuris – mostly men – were taken on to work in the munitions factories during the Second World War, then more joined to work in textiles and engineering. These men would share cheap housing near their places of work, and chain migration developed in the 1950s and beyond. In the 1960s, migration from Mirpur was given added impetus by the building of the Mangla Dam: many of the 100,000 displaced residents used compensation monies to travel to Britain to join family members.

Nevertheless, in such cities, other influences like internal migration also come to the forefront. For example, the growth of Manchester’s population can be attributed not only to international migration but also to internal migration patterns from surrounding rural areas, peaking in the nineteenth century, driven by factors like employment opportunities and lifestyle choices. In these cities, a more diverse set of factors has contributed to population variations, diluting the dominance of international migration.

Natural population change was a significant contributor to population change across the UK in the 1700s to 1800s, as family sizes remained high and life expectancies rose, but, in accordance with the demographic transition model, natural population change now plays a very small role in the variation of the populations of UK areas: the average fertility rate is just 1.61. The interplay between international migration and fertility rates is, nevertheless, significant: in 2021, the fertility rate for UK-born women was 1.54, whilst for non-UK-born women it was 2.03.

In rural areas, international migration is typically a minor factor in population fluctuations. Such population dynamics are more significantly shaped by rural-to-urban migration: many villages, particularly in remote areas, experience depopulation due to the outmigration of young people in search of urban opportunities and lifestyle preferences.

Notable exceptions to this rule do exist: some rural areas of East Anglia and Lincolnshire, plus some tourist hotspots such as the Lake District, have seen a significant influx of Eastern Europeans since the accession of such countries into the EU since 2004. Such groups have mostly travelled in order to work in fruit and vegetable picking and packing, but also in hospitality and other industries. The Brexit vote has led to some reversal of these trends, but the Lincolnshire town of Boston shows that international migration has had a profound impact on its demography: in 2021, 25% of its population were born outside of the UK, with 18% coming from Eastern European countries.

In conclusion, while international migration is indeed the primary driver of population variations in London and major UK cities, its influence diminishes in urban areas further from the core and is seldom the main factor in rural population dynamics. As the UK continues to be an attractive destination for international and internal migrants (the UK recorded record rates of immigration in 2022), fertility rates look unlikely to rise to replacement levels, and chain migration continues to operate, it seems that the influence of international migration is likely to continue to rise.

AO1 = 5 / AO2 = 15

Level	Marks	Description
	0	No rewardable material.
1	1–5	Demonstrates isolated elements of geographical knowledge and understanding, some of which may be inaccurate or irrelevant. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical ideas, making limited and rarely logical connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce an interpretation with limited coherence and support from evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce an unsupported or generic conclusion, drawn from an argument that is unbalanced or lacks coherence. (AO2)
2	6–10	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is occasionally relevant and may include some inaccuracies. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas with limited but logical connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical ideas in order to produce a partial interpretation that is supported by some evidence but has limited coherence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to come to a conclusion, partially supported by an unbalanced argument with limited coherence. (AO2)
3	11–15	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is mostly relevant and accurate. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to find some logical and relevant connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical ideas in order to produce a partial but coherent interpretation that is supported by some evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to come to a conclusion, largely supported by an argument that may be unbalanced or partially coherent. (AO2)
4	16–20	Demonstrates accurate and relevant geographical knowledge and understanding throughout. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to find fully logical and relevant connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce a full and coherent interpretation that is supported by evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to come to a rational, substantiated conclusion, fully supported by a balanced argument that is drawn together coherently. (AO2)

Relevant content may include:

AO1

Global influences, such as wars, pandemics, and the increasing ease and cheapness of global travel.
Other global influences include globalisation, which involves trends such as the widespread adoption of relatively free trade of goods and services, plus a greater ease of global communication, enabling families in different parts of the world to stay in touch with each other.
International influences, such as international migration (economic migrants, educational migrants, refugees), and policies made among blocs of countries (such as the EU) and between countries (e.g. the close ties between India and the UK).
Candidates may refer to colonisation and other historical phenomena which continue to influence places in the UK today.

AO2

Judgements, connections, and conclusions will all depend on the case studies chosen by the candidate.

AO1 = 5 / AO2 = 15

Level	Marks	Description
	0	No rewardable material.
1	1–5	Demonstrates isolated elements of geographical knowledge and understanding, some of which may be inaccurate or irrelevant. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical ideas, making limited and rarely logical connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce an interpretation with limited coherence and support from evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce an unsupported or generic conclusion, drawn from an argument that is unbalanced or lacks coherence. (AO2)
2	6–10	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is occasionally relevant and may include some inaccuracies. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas with limited but logical connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical ideas in order to produce a partial interpretation that is supported by some evidence but has limited coherence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to come to a conclusion, partially supported by an unbalanced argument with limited coherence. (AO2)
3	11–15	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is mostly relevant and accurate. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to find some logical and relevant connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical ideas in order to produce a partial but coherent interpretation that is supported by some evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to come to a conclusion, largely supported by an argument that may be unbalanced or partially coherent. (AO2)
4	16–20	Demonstrates accurate and relevant geographical knowledge and understanding throughout. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to find fully logical and relevant connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce a full and coherent interpretation that is supported by evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to come to a rational, substantiated conclusion, fully supported by a balanced argument that is drawn together coherently. (AO2)

Relevant content may include:

AO1

Residents can view the candidate’s chosen local place positively or negatively, or in a more nuanced fashion.
There is a range of ways to determine residents’ views of their living space.
Statistical evidence can be used to determine such views. This might include census data, council surveys, crime surveys, and so on.
Different broadcast media can also provide such evidence. This media might include local, regional, and national news websites, newspapers, and TV and radio stations, which may report the views of residents of your local area.
Other media may include photography, literature, diaries, blogs, and formal and informal art (including street art), produced by people living in your chosen area.
The different representations of your chosen local place portrayed by these media could influence the perception of cultural and demographic issues and conflict.
Candidates may introduce primary data from visits to their local place.

AO2

Candidates may argue that statistical evidence can be useful for a broad overview of the area and may allow for comparison with other areas (or indeed to track how views of the local area might change over time). This includes studies such as surveys: local authorities will often commission reports that contain detailed and localised statistical evidence. For example, Southend-on-Sea City Council’s 2021 ‘Residents’ Perception Survey’ found that 72% of respondents were satisfied with their local area, but that 83% of those in the West locality were satisfied, compared to 58% in the East Central locality.
However, such evidence:
- ○ is reductive (simplistic)
- ○ may not cover all aspects of what may be considered to reflect residents’ lived experience
- ○ often only uses a sample of residents
- ○ usually focuses on standard of living data (such as number of cars in the household, number of bedrooms, and so on, in the census), rather than asking residents’ views about an area.
Geographical ideas may include reference to:
- ○ ideas of attachment, belonging, and place/space, and may refer to Doreen Massey
- ○ placemaking studies, and may refer to Jane Jacobs
- ○ social inclusion/exclusion, and may refer to Tim Cresswell.
Candidates may reflect on the fact that qualitative evidence is subjective and may be difficult to generalise and replicate, therefore making it difficult to make broad statements about residents’ views of a place.
However, it does allow the development of a ‘richer’ sense of place and may even be used to help residents to inform plans for the local area, including those who may normally not have much of a say.
Candidates may evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of primary and secondary evidence.
Candidates may evaluate the validity of evidence produced by local and national government bodies, private organisations, charities, NGOs, pressure groups, and so on.
Candidates may reflect on the different biases of media operating in their local area in choosing whose voices to listen to, whose to report, and what picture they wish to paint of the area for their customers. For example:
- ○ National newspapers often sensationalise, have political angles, and sometimes show lists of ‘best’ and ‘worst’ places to live/visit in Britain, based on selective evidence.
- ○ Local and regional newspapers may provide ‘grounded’ and balanced representations of places, covering ‘good’ and ‘bad’ news, report community events, showing levels of engagement, celebrate local areas, and contain letters showing a range of voices on local issues.
- ○ Social media may accentuate extreme points of view.
- ○ Street art/graffiti may provide clues about local issues, ‘gangs’, and points of conflict or celebration.
Answers should include reference to detailed place-specific evidence from the candidate’s local area. The best quality answers will probably include key statistical snapshots such as reference to crime surveys or council surveys, as well as qualitative evidence such as quotations or rich descriptions of local places.
High quality answers consider the impact of how different representations of their chosen local place might influence the perception of cultural and demographic issues and conflict: some powerful voices, and those at the extreme, may be reported more often and given more prominence.

Chapter 7

All exemplar answers given are likely to be in the top mark band.

Questions 1–4 are point-marked.

AO1 = 2 / AO2 = 1
Award 1 mark for analysing the resource to identify a consequence on the hydrological cycle from the image and a further 2 marks for expansion, up to a maximum of 3 marks.

Relevant content may include:
- Deforestation could reduce interception (1), which would increase overland flow (1) and could cause flooding (1).
- Deforestation could reduce the potential for evapotranspiration (1), which could decrease outputs (1) and increase water within the basin (1).
- Deforestation may decrease infiltration (1), as fewer trees break up the soil with roots (1), leading to lower rates of percolation (1).
Example answer: Deforestation could lead to reduced interception. This would increase overland flow. It could then cause flooding.
AO1 = 2 / AO2 = 1
Award 1 mark for analysing the resource to identify a relationship between potential evapotranspiration and soil moisture and a further 2 marks for expansion, up to a maximum of 3 marks.

Relevant content may include:
- Potential evapotranspiration creates a deficit (1) if it is higher than precipitation (1) and water has been utilised (1).
- Potential evapotranspiration creates a surplus (1) if it is lower than precipitation (1) and water is allowed to recharge (1).
- A surplus exists (1) if precipitation is higher than potential evapotranspiration (1), allowing water to recharge (1).
AO1 = 2 / AO2 = 1
Award 1 mark for analysing the resource to identify the strategy and a reason for the scheme being controversial, and a further 2 marks for expansion, up to a maximum of 3 marks.

Relevant content may include:
- The dam could restrict water flow (1) to areas or countries downstream (1), which could have socio-economic impacts (1).
- The dam may be being built without transboundary agreement (1), as it could affect other countries (1) if water is held back and rivers controlled (1).
- The dam could hold back water (1), which could change downstream ecosystems (1) and affect downstream economies (1).
- The dam may be expensive (1), which could cause debate over investment in poorer countries (1) as the money could be spent elsewhere (1).
AO1 = 2 / AO2 = 1
Award 1 mark for analysing the resource to identify one reason for the trends shown and a further 2 marks for expansion, up to a maximum of 3 marks.

Relevant content may include:
- Global warming (1) has led to an increase in drought since 1970 (1) due to a warmer climate (1).
- ENSO (1) occurs in short-term oscillations (1), which may relate to the periodic drought periods every 30 years (1).
- Over abstraction (1) may account for the rapid increase in droughts since 2000 (1), as too much water is taken, causing a deficit (1).
Questions 5–22 are level-marked.

AO1 = 6

Level	Marks	Description
	0	No rewardable material.
1	1–2	Demonstrates isolated elements of geographical knowledge and understanding, some of which may be inaccurate or irrelevant. (AO1) Understanding addresses a narrow range of geographical ideas. (AO1) Understanding of geographical ideas lacks detail. (AO1)
2	3–4	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is mostly relevant and may include some inaccuracies. (AO1) Understanding addresses a range of geographical ideas. (AO1) Understanding of geographical ideas is not fully detailed and/or developed. (AO1)
3	5–6	Demonstrates accurate and relevant geographical knowledge and understanding throughout. (AO1) Understanding addresses a broad range of geographical ideas. (AO1) Understanding of geographical ideas is detailed and fully developed. (AO1)

Relevant content may include:

Changing land use such as the conversion of grasslands and forests to farmland reduces interception and storage, and reduces the lag time into rivers by increasing overland flow.
Bare winter fields may also encourage soil to silt up rivers, reducing the storage capacity in river channels.
Urbanisation increases impermeable surfaces and channels water directly into rivers through drains, which may increase the peak discharge.
The creation of reservoirs increases surface storage but may increase the risk of floods in some cases (e.g. Libya 2023).
Mismanagement of river, such as tributaries straightened (realigned) from the original meandering course or channelised rivers with concrete embankments means water enters the main channel more quickly, speeding the flow, which may affect flood risk for different areas.
Local and national governments control planning policy for housing and land use, which can actually reduce risk. For example, the use of SuDS (sustainable drainage systems), which aim to reduce overland flow and flooding.

Example answer: Changing previously forested areas into farmland can lead to decreased interception and an increase in overland flow, which means water gets into the river more quickly (reduces the lag time), causing floods. In the winter, bare fields allow rapid overland flow and may even encourage soil to silt up rivers, reducing the storage capacity in river channels and further flood risk.

Urbanisation also increases risk, as it increases the amount of impermeable surfaces like tarmac and concrete, which reduces infiltration and moves water directly into rivers through drains. This increases the peak discharge and reduces lag time. Homes built recently on floodplains in Nottinghamshire have increased flood risk due to the large amounts of impermeable tarmac created.

Additionally, the mismanagement of rivers can speed the flow, which may affect flood risk for different areas. Straightened (realigned) rivers from the original meandering course or channelised rivers with concrete embankments move water to the main channel more quickly. Also, the creation of reservoirs increases surface storage but may increase the risk of floods in some cases (e.g. Libya 2023).

AO1 = 6

Level	Marks	Description
	0	No rewardable material.
1	1–2	Demonstrates isolated elements of geographical knowledge and understanding, some of which may be inaccurate or irrelevant. (AO1) Understanding addresses a narrow range of geographical ideas. (AO1) Understanding of geographical ideas lacks detail. (AO1)
2	3–4	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is mostly relevant and may include some inaccuracies. (AO1) Understanding addresses a range of geographical ideas. (AO1) Understanding of geographical ideas is not fully detailed and/or developed. (AO1)
3	5–6	Demonstrates accurate and relevant geographical knowledge and understanding throughout. (AO1) Understanding addresses a broad range of geographical ideas. (AO1) Understanding of geographical ideas is detailed and fully developed. (AO1)

Relevant content may include:

The drainage basin is the area drained by a river and all its tributaries, the edge of which is marked by its watershed.
The sequence and relationships of water movement through the system can be seen as an open system within the hydrological cycle, containing linked processes of inputs, flows (throughputs), and outputs with stores in between.
Inputs and outputs can vary with the total amount of water in a basin affected by external factors.

The input is precipitation. If the precipitation exceeds the outputs, then the basin will be in surplus and could lead to floods. Precipitation can be orographic, frontal, and convectional.
Outputs can be evapotranspiration (the combined effect of evaporation from surface water with transpiration which exits the drainage basin as water vapour), channel runoff (the loss of water from a river into the sea), and possible fossil water as a sink out of the system.
Residence times may play a role on the balance of the open system. Longer residence times may make access to freshwater difficult if inaccessible. Most residence times are short with atmospheric water vapour only lasting days.
An equation can be used to understand the balance of water in a drainage basin, expressed by the formula: P = E + Q + ∆S, where the input, precipitation (P), should balance with the outputs of evapotranspiration (E) and runoff (Q), while accounting for changes in water held as soil moisture and groundwater storage within the basin (∆S).
The change in the balance of inputs (precipitation) and outputs (potential evapotranspiration) on soil moisture over a year can be shown in a water budget graph for an area.

AO1 = 6

Level	Marks	Description
	0	No rewardable material.
1	1–2	Demonstrates isolated elements of geographical knowledge and understanding, some of which may be inaccurate or irrelevant. (AO1) Understanding addresses a narrow range of geographical ideas. (AO1) Understanding of geographical ideas lacks detail. (AO1)
2	3–4	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is mostly relevant and may include some inaccuracies. (AO1) Understanding addresses a range of geographical ideas. (AO1) Understanding of geographical ideas is not fully detailed and/or developed. (AO1)
3	5–6	Demonstrates accurate and relevant geographical knowledge and understanding throughout. (AO1) Understanding addresses a broad range of geographical ideas. (AO1) Understanding of geographical ideas is detailed and fully developed. (AO1)

Relevant points may include:

Deforestation: over 20% of the Amazon rainforest has been deforested with 6% more severely degraded for logging and to make room for cattle ranches and farming. This has caused major disruption to the drainage basin to the extent that local climates have been altered. In some areas, interception has reduced with a significant decrease in evapotranspiration. This may also reduce precipitation in the long term. Overland flow has increased, taking soil and silt into rivers and washing away nutrients.
Creating new water storage reservoirs: the creation of reservoirs increases surface storage and accelerates evaporation, while dams slow channel flow, especially upstream. Water can also be more easily removed for human use.
Changing land use: conversion to farmland or urbanisation has huge impacts. Agricultural fields intercept less water and encourage overland flow. Urbanisation increases impermeable surfaces and creates drains, moving water directly into rivers, leading to increased rates of overland flow and channel flow.
Abstracting water: pumping water from the ground severely reduces groundwater storage in an aquifer and lowers the water table, which can lead to rivers drying up completely. About 40% of London’s water comes from chalk aquifers.

AO1 = 6

Level	Marks	Description
	0	No rewardable material.
1	1–2	Demonstrates isolated elements of geographical knowledge and understanding, some of which may be inaccurate or irrelevant. (AO1) Understanding addresses a narrow range of geographical ideas. (AO1) Understanding of geographical ideas lacks detail. (AO1)
2	3–4	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is mostly relevant and may include some inaccuracies. (AO1) Understanding addresses a range of geographical ideas. (AO1) Understanding of geographical ideas is not fully detailed and/or developed. (AO1)
3	5–6	Demonstrates accurate and relevant geographical knowledge and understanding throughout. (AO1) Understanding addresses a broad range of geographical ideas. (AO1) Understanding of geographical ideas is detailed and fully developed. (AO1)

Relevant content may include:

Industries, especially chemical and electronic, require water for products, manufacturing, cleaning, and cooling, with developed countries using 59% of their total water this way. Without cheap or accessible water, many manufacturing industries couldn’t function and would close.
All thermal power stations require vast amounts of water (80% of energy use globally). Hydroelectric plants run on water alone. A reduction in supply could mean short-term blackouts and long-term closure of heavy industries.
High crop yields are vital for food security and economic prosperity, requiring abstraction of water for irrigation. Food shortages quickly arise with a lack of water leading to famine and civil unrest.
Clean water is required for hygiene, washing, and cleaning, and ultimately a good quality of life. Poor sanitation can lead to debilitating diseases, such as cholera, through the consumption of unsafe water.
Clean hands, and food washed in clean water, prevents the spread of disease. Waterborne diseases affect life expectancy, education, the ability to work productively, and lead to increased poverty.

AO1 = 8

Level	Marks	Description
	0	No rewardable material.
1	1–2	Demonstrates isolated elements of geographical knowledge and understanding, some of which may be inaccurate or irrelevant. (AO1) Understanding addresses a narrow range of geographical ideas, which lacks detail. (AO1)
2	3–5	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is mostly relevant and may include some inaccuracies. (AO1) Understanding addresses a range of geographical ideas, which are not fully detailed and/or developed. (AO1)
3	6–8	Demonstrates accurate and relevant geographical knowledge and understanding throughout. (AO1) Understanding addresses a broad range of geographical ideas, which are detailed and fully developed. (AO1)

Relevant content may include:

Water stress means that people do not have access to water for domestic use for a period of time, as demand exceeds supply by 10% or above. Water scarcity means continuous water shortages and deficit, causing major impacts on the environment, economy, and quality of life. Physical scarcity: water supply does not meet the demand. Economic scarcity: people cannot afford potentially available water.
Over 1.6 billion people face economic water scarcity, where people or countries lack or cannot afford access to clean water, also known as potable water. The price of water may be too high, leading to water poverty.
Costs of obtaining water varies (e.g. the removal of water from aquifers (bore holes and wells), rivers and reservoirs for irrigation, industrial and domestic use). Water from aquifers or distant reservoirs is more expensive to access. More arid countries face higher costs in accessing water, especially areas that are beginning to suffer from climate change or increased severity of ENSO events.
Development levels also play a role. Lack of infrastructure: rapidly growing or slum areas may exceed the capacity to keep up with demand for piped water. Water may only be accessible by tanker or in bottles (e.g. parts of Port-au Prince, Haiti).
Privatised water companies: private services charge fees to make profit and overcharging may occur if they are a monopoly or badly governed. For example, Bolivia: the water system in Cochabamba, Bolivia, was privatised in 1999, leading to a 35% increase in price and increased water poverty. There were widespread protests against the new provider, Aguas del Tunari.
Government policies: some governments may charge more to encourage efficiency or to reinvest in ecosystem health (e.g. Denmark).

Example answer: The price of water can be much more expensive in areas that have physical water scarcity due to the climate of an area. Although some countries like Saudi Arabia use fossil water from boreholes, most arid countries have to spend more to obtain water for irrigation, industrial, and domestic use. For example, in Australia, the ‘Big dry’ drought lasted from 1996 to 2012 and affected the largest river, the Murray-Darling, with rainfall up to 20% lower than expected for this period. This led to water being a precious commodity and much more expensive.

Climate change, affecting ENSO cycles, is also suggested to have increased the aridity of some areas with resulting impact on water supply costs by creating a deficit in the system.

Economic scarcity also helps determine the price of water. Over 1.6 billion people face economic water scarcity, where people or countries lack or cannot afford access to clean water, also known as potable water. The price of water may be too high, leading to water poverty. Developing countries tend to lack infrastructure and face rapidly growing informal settlement areas, which may exceed the capacity to keep up with demand for piped water. Water may only be accessible by tanker or in bottles and therefore is expensive (e.g. parts of Port-au-Prince, Haiti).

Privatised water companies are another reason, as private services charge fees to make profit. Overcharging may occur if a monopoly exists or it is badly governed. For example, in Cochabamba, Bolivia, the water system was privatised in 1999, leading to a 35% increase in price and increased water poverty. There were widespread protests against the new provider, Aguas del Tunari.

Finally, in some countries, ‘green’ policies can play a role in making water more expensive as governments may charge more to encourage efficiency or to reinvest in ecosystem health (e.g. Denmark).

AO1 = 8

Level	Marks	Description
	0	No rewardable material.
1	1–2	Demonstrates isolated elements of geographical knowledge and understanding, some of which may be inaccurate or irrelevant. (AO1) Understanding addresses a narrow range of geographical ideas, which lacks detail. (AO1)
2	3–5	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is mostly relevant and may include some inaccuracies. (AO1) Understanding addresses a range of geographical ideas, which are not fully detailed and/or developed. (AO1)
3	6–8	Demonstrates accurate and relevant geographical knowledge and understanding throughout. (AO1) Understanding addresses a broad range of geographical ideas, which are detailed and fully developed. (AO1)

Relevant content may include:

Climate variability: precipitation patterns determine available water supply. High-pressure zones see low rain and snowfall although this may vary seasonally and in longer-term cycles, affected by oscillations. Climate change may reduce precipitation in some areas.
Physical location: areas far inland will generally see low precipitation. Some areas, such as the Death Valley, USA, may experience a rain shadow and be extremely dry. The geology of an area can also determine the extent of rivers and lakes and access to groundwater aquifers.
Saltwater encroachment at the coast: seawater can be drawn into aquifers under the ground when there is a deficit of fresh water, possibly due to over-abstraction. This reduces the available freshwater resource. For example, Florida, USA, where saltwater encroachment has occurred into the 82,000 square miles of freshwater aquifer due to over-abstraction and the building of canals directly to the sea. This pollutes natural ecosystems, such as the Everglades, and slowly poisons farmland.
Climate change has significant impacts on the hydrological cycle locally and globally as the planet warms up, increasing the risks of droughts or floods. Every area may experience a different effect upon their local systems with different scenarios suggested for polar and tropical regions.
Oscillations such as El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) can change a region’s climate in the short-term. ENSO events will become more extreme and switch more rapidly, meaning droughts will follow floods and floods after droughts, although it is uncertain. The overall level of climate uncertainty will increase and feedback cycles may lead to greater imbalance within the system.

AO1 = 8

Level	Marks	Description
	0	No rewardable material.
1	1–2	Demonstrates isolated elements of geographical knowledge and understanding, some of which may be inaccurate or irrelevant. (AO1) Understanding addresses a narrow range of geographical ideas, which lacks detail. (AO1)
2	3–5	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is mostly relevant and may include some inaccuracies. (AO1) Understanding addresses a range of geographical ideas, which are not fully detailed and/or developed. (AO1)
3	6–8	Demonstrates accurate and relevant geographical knowledge and understanding throughout. (AO1) Understanding addresses a broad range of geographical ideas, which are detailed and fully developed. (AO1)

Relevant content may include:

Restoring lakes and rivers to a more natural condition reduces the need for expensive hard engineering and maintenance, and increases water stores while improving ecosystems. Restoration schemes involve restoring natural meanders to slow flows and increase water storage, reflooding large areas to recreate wetlands, sometimes also reintroducing beavers, reducing abstraction from aquifers to allow them to recharge naturally.
Conserving water reduces demand and makes water use more efficient. Smart irrigation methods include drip irrigation rather than using sprinklers, saving water and money and hydroponics (the growing of crops without soil in greenhouses and drip-feeding water and nutrients).
Recycling water uses ‘grey water’ from cities for agriculture and reduces demand. Rainwater and sewage can be purified via filtration and used as drinking water, such as in Singapore.
Large rivers can also be managed in a holistic manner through Integrated water resource management (IWRM). This aims to coordinate the development and management of resources between the different players involved, consider the whole drainage basin and natural hydrology, maximise economic and social services in an equitable manner, and protect the sustainability of ecosystems.
Water-sharing treaties and frameworks, such as the United Nations ‘Economic Commission for Europe’ (UNECE) water convention, aim to reduce the risks of conflicts and increase the efficiency of water usage. They are governed by IGOs (inter-governmental organisations).

AO1 = 8

Level	Marks	Description
	0	No rewardable material.
1	1–2	Demonstrates isolated elements of geographical knowledge and understanding, some of which may be inaccurate or irrelevant. (AO1) Understanding addresses a narrow range of geographical ideas, which lacks detail. (AO1)
2	3–5	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is mostly relevant and may include some inaccuracies. (AO1) Understanding addresses a range of geographical ideas, which are not fully detailed and/or developed. (AO1)
3	6–8	Demonstrates accurate and relevant geographical knowledge and understanding throughout. (AO1) Understanding addresses a broad range of geographical ideas, which are detailed and fully developed. (AO1)

Relevant content may include:

Climate change has significant impacts on the hydrological cycle locally and globally as the planet warms up, increasing the risks of droughts and floods. Every area may experience a different effect upon their local systems with different scenarios suggested for polar and tropical regions.
Oscillations such as El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) can change a region’s climate in the short-term. ENSO events will become more extreme and switch more rapidly, meaning droughts will follow floods and floods after droughts, although it is uncertain. The overall level of climate uncertainty will increase and feedback cycles may lead to greater imbalance within the system.
Human actions exacerbate droughts. Over abstraction: the removal of water from aquifers (bore holes and wells), rivers and reservoirs for irrigation, industrial and domestic use is unsustainable if not replaced by precipitation. This is especially significant in dry areas with low or unpredictable precipitation.
Human actions also exacerbate droughts by desertification: the removal of vegetation in semi-desert areas this can lead to the land becoming desert due to increased erosion of soil by the wind, which further reduces the ability of remaining vegetation to grow.
Droughts can lead to economic impacts. Impact on industries: without cheap or accessible water many manufacturing industries couldn’t function and would close. A reduction in supply could mean short-term blackouts and long-term closure of heavy industries. Food shortages quickly arise, with a lack of water leading to famine and civil unrest.
Droughts can lead to wellbeing impacts. Poor sanitation can lead to debilitating diseases, such as cholera, through the consumption of unsafe water.
Water insecurity can lead to conflicts within a country and between countries if a drainage basin crosses international borders (transboundary conflicts). The ‘fair share’ of water a country deserves is controversial, especially if a country constructs dams which limit the downstream flow to other countries.

AO1 = 3 / AO2 = 9

Level	Marks	Description
	0	No rewardable material.
1	1–4	Demonstrates isolated elements of geographical knowledge and understanding, some of which may be inaccurate. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas, making limited logical connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce an interpretation that is not relevant and/or supported by evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce an unbalanced argument that lacks coherence and makes judgements that are generic and unsupported by evidence. (AO2)
2	5–8	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is mostly relevant and may include some inaccuracies. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas logically, making some relevant connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding to geographical information/ideas to produce a partial but coherent interpretation that is mostly relevant and supported by evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding to geographical information/ideas to produce an unbalanced, partially supported argument that is drawn together with some coherence in order to make judgements. (AO2)
3	9–12	Demonstrates accurate and relevant geographical knowledge and understanding throughout. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding to geographical information/ideas logically, making relevant connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding to geographical information/ideas to produce a full and coherent interpretation that is relevant and supported by evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding to geographical information/ideas to produce a balanced, fully-supported argument that is drawn together coherently in order to make rational judgements. (AO2)

Relevant content may include:

AO1

Physical features include size, shape, drainage density, rock type, soil, relief, and vegetation.
The shape of storm hydrographs depends on physical features of drainage basins.
The shape of storm hydrographs depends on human factors such as land use and urbanisation.

AO2

The two catchments have been affected by the same storm, so inputs are the same.
Catchment A shows peak discharge at approx. 4–5 cumecs after 4 hours. This means the lag time is shorter and the river more likely to flood as a flashy response. Catchment B shows peak discharge at approx. 2.5 cumecs after 6 hours. This means the lag time is longer and the river less likely to flood as a gentler response.
Small basins have a shorter distance to the main river channel. Larger basins have a longer distance to the main river channel. Catchment A is smaller and more likely to flood.
Rounder basins mean rainfall will reach the river at a similar time. Elongated basins mean rainfall will reach the river at different times. As catchment B is elongated which means water reaches the main river channel at staggered times.
Impermeable rocks lower infiltration, leading to increased overland flow. Permeable rocks allow infiltration, leading to decreased overland flow. Also, impermeable soils like clay do not allow infiltration, leading to increased overland flow, whereas permeable soil like sand allow infiltration, leading to decreased overland flow. Catchment A is impermeable granite and so prone to less infiltration. This is perhaps the biggest factor governing the relative shape of the hydrograph.
Steeper basins encourage faster water movement into rivers due to gravity and reduced infiltration. Basins with gentle slopes slow water movement into rivers due to gravity and increased infiltration. Catchment A is steeper with a 10-degree average slope compared to catchment B’s 5 degree. Water will run faster downslope in catchment a.
Less vegetation, bare agricultural fields, or deciduous trees shedding leaves in winter means lower interception and infiltration. More vegetation planted crops and trees in full leaf means more interception and infiltration. Catchment B has a forested landscape whereas catchment a doesn’t, but instead has an urban area, increasing the area of impermeable surfaces and flood risk. This is also a significant factor as there are multiple instances of land use affecting the hydrograph.

Example answer: Catchment A shows peak discharge at approx. 4–5 cumecs after 4 hours and a shorter lag time than catchment B (peak discharge at approx. 2.5 cumecs after 6 hours). A key reason is the nature of the rock type with granite in catchment A being an impermeable rock. Lower infiltration leads to increased overland flow here while permeable rocks in catchment B allow infiltration, leading to decreased overland flow. This is highly significant as impermeable bedrock controls infiltration rates across the basin and may also have an impact upon surface stores, vegetation type, and drainage density.

The nature of the basins themselves also play a role. Catchment A is smaller and more likely to flood because small basins have a shorter distance to the main river channel. Larger basins have a longer distance to the main river channel. Also, rounder basins mean rainfall will reach the river at a similar time (like catchment A), whereas elongated basins mean rain rainfall will reach the river at different times. Additionally, the fact that catchment A is steeper with a 10-degree average slope compared to catchment B’s 5 degree means that water will run faster downslope in catchment A due to gravity, and therefore reduce infiltration, and enter the main river more quickly, decreasing lag time. Basins with gentle slopes, like B, slow water movement into rivers due to gravity and increased infiltration.

Human land use changes also affect things highly significantly as there are a number of elements in both basins. Catchment B has a forested landscape which would intercept more precipitation and store it as interception and vegetation storage. Trees also encourage higher rates of infiltration. The net effect of a longer lag time with smaller quantity of water entering a river. Catchment B also has a dam and reservoir which can be used to store excess water and to control the flow of the river. Catchment A instead has an urban area, increasing the area of impermeable surfaces and flood risk.

Catchment A is far more flashy than B due to the various factors affecting lag time. The most significant factor on catchment A is likely to be the geology as impermeable granite is spread across the whole area. Land use management is more significant on catchment B as the dam will ultimately control the river flow, and forested land and lack of urbanisation meaning a much longer lag time.

AO1 = 3 / AO2 = 9
Level Marks Description 0
- No rewardable material.
1 1–4
- Demonstrates isolated elements of geographical knowledge and understanding, some of which may be inaccurate. (AO1)
- Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas, making limited logical connections/relationships. (AO2)
- Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce an interpretation that is not relevant and/or supported by evidence. (AO2)
- Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce an unbalanced argument that lacks coherence and makes judgements that are generic and unsupported by evidence. (AO2)
2 5–8
- Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is mostly relevant and may include some inaccuracies. (AO1)
- Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas logically, making some relevant connections/relationships. (AO2)
- Applies knowledge and understanding to geographical information/ideas to produce a partial but coherent interpretation that is mostly relevant and supported by evidence. (AO2)
- Applies knowledge and understanding to geographical information/ideas to produce an unbalanced, partially supported argument that is drawn together with some coherence in order to make judgements. (AO2)
3 9–12
- Demonstrates accurate and relevant geographical knowledge and understanding throughout. (AO1)
- Applies knowledge and understanding to geographical information/ideas logically, making relevant connections/relationships. (AO2)
- Applies knowledge and understanding to geographical information/ideas to produce a full and coherent interpretation that is relevant and supported by evidence. (AO2)
- Applies knowledge and understanding to geographical information/ideas to produce a balanced, fully-supported argument that is drawn together coherently in order to make rational judgements. (AO2)
Relevant content may include:

AO1
- There are five main stores: the most important store is the oceans with water stored as liquid; as glacial ice, snow, or permafrost in the cryosphere; water vapour in the atmosphere is relatively small and precipitated quickly; as groundwater in rocks below ground; on land as surface water in lakes and rivers, or in the living organisms of the biosphere, making up a very small proportion of total water and the most accessible for human use.
- Climate change has significant impacts on the hydrological cycle locally and globally as the planet warms up, increasing the risks of droughts or floods.
- Every area may experience a different effect upon their local systems with different scenarios suggested for polar and tropical regions.
- The sequence and relationships of water movement through the system can be seen as an open system within the hydrological cycle, containing linked processes of inputs, flows (throughputs), and outputs with stores in between.
AO2
- In the cryosphere, snowpacks and glaciers may see a reduction in total amount of snow mass and reduced snow-forming season. Glacial retreat is significant with ice making up 69% of all freshwater. Permafrost may undergo an increased reduction through thawing, especially in northern latitudes, affecting ground water and channel flow.
- Soil moisture may see increased drying out and risk of desertification in warmer areas. This drying can cause ‘forest stress’ meaning trees die and shed leaves. This leads to reduced evapotranspiration which can reduce precipitation levels even further as part of a positive feedback. Drought also reduces the surface water store which makes up freshwater wetlands.
- Reservoirs and lakes will see an unclear impact due to the focus of human activity. These may be decreasing in warmer climates due to increased evaporation.
- Humans may respond to shortages through increased pressure on existing resources. The removal of water from aquifers (bore holes and wells), rivers and reservoirs for irrigation, industrial and domestic use is unsustainable if not replaced by precipitation, i.e. over-abstraction. This is especially significant in dry areas with low or unpredictable precipitation. For example, over-abstraction in Australia for rapidly expanding urban areas and unrestricted irrigation taking 70% of total water usage significantly contributed to the drought.
- Desertification also may increase with climate change affecting various stores. The removal of vegetation in semi-desert areas can lead to the land becoming desert due to increased erosion of soil by the wind which further reduces the ability of remaining vegetation to grow.
- Furthermore, oscillations such as El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) can change a region’s climate in the short-term and affect stores. ENSO events will become more extreme and switch more rapidly, meaning droughts will follow floods and floods after droughts, although it is uncertain. The overall level of climate uncertainty will increase, and feedback cycles may lead to greater imbalance within the system.
- Also, some freshwater stored deep in the ground fell as rain millennia ago and will not be restored if used by people. This means it is non-renewable fossil water, such as the Nubian sandstone aquifer under the Sahara Desert.

AO1 = 3 / AO2 = 9

Level	Marks	Description
	0	No rewardable material.
1	1–4	Demonstrates isolated elements of geographical knowledge and understanding, some of which may be inaccurate. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas, making limited logical connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce an interpretation that is not relevant and/or supported by evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce an unbalanced argument that lacks coherence and makes judgements that are generic and unsupported by evidence. (AO2)
2	5–8	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is mostly relevant and may include some inaccuracies. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas logically, making some relevant connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding to geographical information/ideas to produce a partial but coherent interpretation that is mostly relevant and supported by evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding to geographical information/ideas to produce an unbalanced, partially supported argument that is drawn together with some coherence in order to make judgements. (AO2)
3	9–12	Demonstrates accurate and relevant geographical knowledge and understanding throughout. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding to geographical information/ideas logically, making relevant connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding to geographical information/ideas to produce a full and coherent interpretation that is relevant and supported by evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding to geographical information/ideas to produce a balanced, fully-supported argument that is drawn together coherently in order to make rational judgements. (AO2)

Relevant content may include:

AO1

Water insecurity occurs when areas experience a lack of fresh water due to demand exceeding supply. It is caused by an imbalance of supply and demand, and both factors are relevant here.
Water stress means that people do not have accesses to water for domestic use for a period of time, as demand exceeds supply by 10% or above.
Water scarcity means continuous water shortages and deficit, causing major impacts on the environment, economy, and quality of life. Physical scarcity: water supply does not meet the demand. Economic scarcity: people cannot afford potentially available water.

AO2

Physical causes:

Precipitation patterns determine available water supply. High pressure zones see low rain and snowfall although this may vary seasonally and in longer-term cycles, affected by oscillations. Climate change may reduce precipitation in some areas.
Areas far inland will generally see low precipitation. Some areas, such as the Death Valley, USA, may experience a rain shadow and be extremely dry. The geology of an area can also determine the extent of rivers and lakes and access to groundwater aquifers.
Salt water encroachment at coast can reduce supply. Sea water can be drawn into aquifers under the ground when there is a deficit of freshwater, possibly due to over abstraction. This reduces the available freshwater resource.

Human causes:

Desertification caused by human activity can exacerbate insecurity. The removal of vegetation in semi-desert areas can lead to the land becoming desert due to increased erosion of soil by the wind, which further reduces the ability of remaining vegetation to grow.
Over abstraction can exacerbate insecurity. The removal of water from aquifers (bore holes and wells), rivers and reservoirs for irrigation, industrial and domestic use is unsustainable if not replaced by precipitation. This is especially significant in dry areas with low or unpredictable precipitation.
Agricultural contamination reduces supply as toxic pesticides and chemical fertiliser contaminate groundwater supply. Eutrophication can occur when nitrates enter lakes and rivers, leading to the pollution of large areas. Likewise, heavy metals, such as cadmium, from mining or factories may end up in surface and groundwater, making it unfit for human consumption. Raw sewage also contaminates water supply and increases the risk of waterborne diseases, a major issue for developing countries with 840,000 people dying each year.
Demand is increasing at the same time. The global population is growing at 0.9%, or 80 million, a year, meaning increased demand for water for domestic use. Developing countries with the highest levels of water scarcity are seeing the highest population growth.
The increasing middle class of emerging countries demand more water through both direct use in the home with appliances such as dishwashers, as well as through the demand for industrial products and a wider variety of foods which require intensive water use.
Increased economic development in emerging and developing countries has meant a significant demand for water for use in manufacturing processes and as coolants, with 40% of all abstraction for industry.
Agriculture uses 70% of the world’s freshwater for irrigation. Increasing populations and demand for meat has increased the demand. Many farming practises are wasteful of water and also pollute supply.
Additionally, climate change has significant impacts on the hydrological cycle locally and globally as the planet warms up, increasing the risks of droughts or floods. ENSO events will become more extreme and switch more rapidly, meaning droughts will follow floods and floods after droughts, although it is uncertain.

AO1 = 3 / AO2 = 9

Level	Marks	Description
	0	No rewardable material.
1	1–4	Demonstrates isolated elements of geographical knowledge and understanding, some of which may be inaccurate. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas, making limited logical connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce an interpretation that is not relevant and/or supported by evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce an unbalanced argument that lacks coherence and makes judgements that are generic and unsupported by evidence. (AO2)
2	5–8	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is mostly relevant and may include some inaccuracies. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas logically, making some relevant connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding to geographical information/ideas to produce a partial but coherent interpretation that is mostly relevant and supported by evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding to geographical information/ideas to produce an unbalanced, partially supported argument that is drawn together with some coherence in order to make judgements. (AO2)
3	9–12	Demonstrates accurate and relevant geographical knowledge and understanding throughout. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding to geographical information/ideas logically, making relevant connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding to geographical information/ideas to produce a full and coherent interpretation that is relevant and supported by evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding to geographical information/ideas to produce a balanced, fully-supported argument that is drawn together coherently in order to make rational judgements. (AO2)

Relevant content may include:

AO1

The mismatch between water supply and demand is growing, leading to water stress (below 1700 m³ of domestic water per person).
Rising demand (increasing population, improving living standards, industrialisation, and agriculture) is increasingly serious.
Physical causes of supply reduction include climate variability and salt water encroachment at the coast.
Human causes of supply reduction include over abstraction from rivers, lakes, and groundwater aquifers, water contamination from agriculture, and industrial water pollution.

AO2

Use the map as part of your assessment and application.
Use the countries and data, and interpret choropleth patterns. For example, the highest rates of future withdrawal are in the Middle East and North Africa, but also significant stresses in North America and Europe.
Over abstraction can exacerbate insecurity. The removal of water from aquifers (bore holes and wells), rivers and reservoirs for irrigation, and industrial and domestic use is unsustainable if not replaced by precipitation. This is especially significant in dry areas with low or unpredictable precipitation.
Human actions relating to salt water encroachment at the coast can reduce supply if over abstraction of aquifers are the cause. Sea water can be drawn into aquifers under the ground when there is a deficit of freshwater, possibly due to over abstraction. This reduces the available freshwater resource.
Desertification caused by human activity can exacerbate insecurity. The removal of vegetation in semi-desert areas can lead to the land becoming desert due to increased erosion of soil by the wind, which further reduces the ability of remaining vegetation to grow.
Agricultural contamination reduces supply as toxic pesticides and chemical fertiliser contaminate groundwater supply. Eutrophication can occur when nitrates enter lakes and rivers, leading to the pollution of large areas. Likewise, heavy metals, such as cadmium, from mining or factories may end up in surface and ground water, making it unfit for human consumption. Raw sewage also contaminates water supply and increases the risk of waterborne diseases, which is a major issue for developing countries with 840,000 people dying each year.
Demand is increasing at the same time. The global population is growing at 0.9%, or 80 million, a year, meaning increased demand for water for domestic use. Developing countries with the highest levels of water scarcity are seeing the highest population growth.
The increasing middle class of emerging countries demand more water through direct use in the home with appliances such as dishwashers, as well as through the demand for industrial products and a wider variety of foods which require intensive water use.
Increased economic development in emerging and developing countries has meant a significant demand for water for use in manufacturing processes and as coolants, with 40% of all abstraction for industry.
Agriculture uses 70% of the world’s freshwater for irrigation. Increasing populations and demand for meat has increased the demand. Many farming practises are wasteful of water and also pollute supply.
Additionally, climate change can be deemed as a human aspect with significant impacts on the hydrological cycle locally and globally as the planet warms up, increasing the risks of droughts or floods. ENSO events will become more extreme and switch more rapidly, meaning droughts will follow floods and floods after droughts, although it is uncertain.

AO1 = 5 / AO2 = 15

Level	Marks	Description
	0	No rewardable material.
1	1–5	Demonstrates isolated elements of geographical knowledge and understanding, some of which may be inaccurate or irrelevant. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical ideas, making limited and rarely logical connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce an interpretation with limited coherence and support from evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce an unsupported or generic conclusion, drawn from an argument that is unbalanced or lacks coherence. (AO2)
2	6–10	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is occasionally relevant and may include some inaccuracies. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas with limited but logical connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical ideas in order to produce a partial interpretation that is supported by some evidence but has limited coherence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to come to a conclusion, partially supported by an unbalanced argument with limited coherence. (AO2)
3	11–15	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is mostly relevant and accurate. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to find some logical and relevant connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical ideas in order to produce a partial but coherent interpretation that is supported by some evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to come to a conclusion, largely supported by an argument that may be unbalanced or partially coherent. (AO2)
4	16–20	Demonstrates accurate and relevant geographical knowledge and understanding throughout. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to find fully logical and relevant connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce a full and coherent interpretation that is supported by evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to come to a rational, substantiated conclusion, fully supported by a balanced argument that is drawn together coherently. (AO2)

Relevant content may include:

AO1

Water insecurity can lead to conflicts within a country and between countries if a drainage basin crosses international borders (transboundary conflicts).
The ‘fair share’ of water a country deserves is controversial, especially if a country constructs dams which limit the downstream flow to other countries.
The future of water insecurity, based on projections, is uncertain due to rates of population growth, rates of industrialisation and economic growth, possible adoption of new technologies, and climate change.
Hard engineering can be a solution to many problems with the techno-fix of hard engineering schemes to include water transfers, mega dams, and desalination.
Water conservation: conserving water reduces demand and makes water use more efficient and can reduce potential conflicts.
Large rivers can be also managed in a holistic manner to include more players through integrated water resource management (IWRM).

AO2

Climate change is a key driver of conflict and is increasing. Climate change has significant impacts on the hydrological cycle locally and globally as the planet warms up, increasing the risks of droughts and potential conflicts over scant resources. ENSO variations will affect this. This is a key factor which underlies the various problems and mitigation against conflict, and should be addressed.
Arguments could be made about the general need for water with supply falling and demand rising in different areas, although ‘transboundary’ is the key term.
Hard engineering has the potential to both increase and decrease conflicts. The South-North water transfer project in China could be considered transboundary if taken at catchment value. It aims to move 45 billion m³ of water a year to the more arid north of China and its capital, Beijing. This could support the rising population and maintain economic growth there, but the transfer of water could lead to shortages in the south and cause ecosystem damage as well as the resettlement issues from submerged land.
Clearer transboundary issues lie with the construction of hard engineered dams which restrict flow downstream and may flood areas upstream. The Turkey GAP scheme has had extremely detrimental effects on the flow of the Euphrates and Tigris rivers, which flow into arid areas. Additionally, the Nile basin has a long history of conflict, which seems to be increasing with the need for water. The Aswan dam was constructed with Sudan’s agreement in 1959 to the exclusion of other countries, which have been affected by changes to the river’s flow. In 2011, the Grand Renaissance Dam was built on the Blue Nile tributary, from where 85% of the Nile’s waters flow; Egypt is hinting at armed conflict.
The complex nature of drainage basin management can also be argued with the increasing numbers of players and the need for agreement. The Colorado or Murray-Darling are likely examples.
However, arguments can be made that conflicts could decrease with more sustainable methods of managing water. For example:
- Restoring lakes and rivers to a more natural condition reduces the need for expensive hard engineering and maintenance, and increases water stores while improving ecosystems.
- Conserving water reduces demand and makes water use more efficient. Smart irrigation methods include drip irrigation rather than using sprinklers, saving water and money, and hydroponics (the growing of crops without soil in greenhouses and drip-feeding water and nutrients).
- Recycling water uses ‘grey water’ from cities for agriculture and reduces demand. Rainwater and sewage can be purified via filtration and used as drinking water such as in Singapore.

Large rivers can also be managed in a holistic manner through integrated water resource management (IWRM). This aims to coordinate the development and management of resources between the different players involved, consider the whole drainage basin and natural hydrology, maximise economic and social services in an equitable manner, and protect the sustainability of ecosystems. These are largely unsuccessful, although the Colorado could be seen as a mild success.
Water-sharing treaties and frameworks (e.g. the United Nations ‘Economic Commission for Europe’ (UNECE) water convention) aim to reduce the risks of conflicts and increase the efficiency of water usage. They are governed by IGOs (inter-governmental organisations).

Example answer: Transboundary conflicts occur when bordering countries share a water resource between each other, leading to conflict in the way the water is distributed. This can lead to many political issues and water insecurity, resulting in conflict. However, more sustainable projects and IWRM could mitigate the extent to which conflicts could possibly occur.

The biggest issue that underlies all the others is the fact that water insecurity is increasing, and so the potential for conflict is also increasing, as water is a finite resource on Earth. Precipitation patterns that currently determine available water supply will reduce, and droughts will likely become longer, more severe, and affect more areas, possibly exacerbated by human activity. Additionally, oscillations such as El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) may become more extreme and switch more rapidly, meaning droughts will follow floods and floods after droughts, although it is uncertain. When combined with the rapid rate of population growth and urbanisation (growing at 0.9%, or 80 million, a year), this means a rapidly increased demand for water for domestic use. This is a chronic but long-term trend and underlies all other arguments as the basic system enters deficit. The additional improving living standards and increasing middle class of emerging countries will also demand more water through direct use in the home with appliances such as dishwashers, as well as through the demand for industrial products and a wider variety of foods which require intensive water use. Therefore, even with increasing economic growth, it is likely that the fundamental potential for conflicts will increase.

Conflicts are also likely to occur on complex basins where there are multiple countries, and so they are hard to manage. The Colorado basin saw decades of conflict as original agreements shared water unfairly, leading to Mexico only receiving 10% of the basin’s water and the State of California taking 20% more than its allocation. Moreover, the Nile basin sees increasing conflict due to the building of the Grand Renaissance Dam on the Blue Nile by Ethiopia in 2011, from where 85% of the Nile’s waters flow. Egypt is alarmed at the possible loss of water resources when filling the mega dam (25%) and the impact on power generation at Aswan, and have hinted at armed conflict. The complexity of the issue and need for electricity is likely to cause future conflict. Perhaps another key consideration is the fact these are developing or emerging countries, and so more heavily reliant on water alongside a degree of national pride in the project. This seems to be a trend when also considering the Mekong and Turkey’s GAP project.

Having said this, hard engineering can provide a degree of solutions in some areas. Desalination could be a techno-fix to problems in places like the Aral Sea or Middle Eastern countries that are especially noticing the effects of climate change. However, this would be an issue in lower income countries, as desalination, although effective, is a very expensive process. Countries in the Sahel-region suffering from water insecurity will be unable to rely on desalination due to the lack of affordability.

Perhaps a more successful way to mitigate future conflicts could be sustainable management schemes. River restoration methods of restoring lakes and rivers to a more natural condition reduces the need for expensive hard engineering and maintenance, and increases water stores, while improving ecosystems; for example, the Kissimmee River restoration project, Florida, USA. Furthermore, water could be better conserved with smart irrigation methods, such as drip irrigation rather than using sprinklers (saving water and money), hydroponics, and recycling water by using ‘grey water’ from cities for agriculture (reduces demand). In some developed

countries, rainwater and sewage can be purified via filtration and used as drinking water. Singapore, an island of 5.4 million people with chronic water insecurity, has developed a mix of hard engineering and sustainable methods to manage supply under its ‘Four taps’ policy where ‘NEWater’ uses filtration and membrane technology to turn sewage into clean water, meeting 12% of Singapore’s needs, with use for drinking water possible. Many of these methods are low-tech, however, and perfectly possible if countries wish to adopt them. The only block would be political will and pressures of socio-economic growth.

Therefore, perhaps the best way to mitigate future conflicts could be the use of an integrated water drainage basin system, through coordinated development and management of water, land, and related sources in order to maximise economic and social welfare. This was successfully evident with the Colorado river IWRM, where the water from this river supplies eight states in the USA and Mexico, containing 14 major dams and reservoirs, to distribute the water fairly. This has also led to positive environmental and economic impacts, as 1.4 million hectares of farmland is irrigated, and drinking water is accessible for 50 million people. IWRM has led to greater stakeholder agreement, including Native Americans who were not receiving a fair share. A 2012 agreement gives Mexico the right to some water stored in Lake Mead in the USA. A new agreement in 2007 used current climate data to share surpluses and deficits more fairly. However, successes are rare, and the Colorado has a long way to go to fully meet the aims of IWRM, making this potentially the best way to mitigate conflict, but the least successful.

Finally, the use of water treaties can reduce conflicts. For example, the Helsinki Rules is an international treaty that focuses on equitable uses and shares between countries. It applies to a whole drainage basin and looks at natural, economic, and social needs, and dependency. This treaty is relatively successful. For example, the Ganges water sharing treaty (Bangladesh and India), where both countries have received a fair amount of water depending on the Helsinki Rules. However, it is not a legal document and is largely ignored.

In conclusion, conflicts between most transboundary users will increase in the future due to climate change reducing supply. Population and economic growth will also increase demand, increasing the world’s water gap. This will be especially significant in developing countries that will not be able to afford or will not have the political will to adopt water treaties and frameworks. An acute aspect for some conflicts, although small in number, will be the control of headwaters by the use of dams. In these situations, a long-term, low-level conflict could escalate quickly into a war.

AO1 = 5 / AO2 = 15
Level Marks Description 0
- No rewardable material.
1 1–5
- Demonstrates isolated elements of geographical knowledge and understanding, some of which may be inaccurate or irrelevant. (AO1)
- Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical ideas, making limited and rarely logical connections/relationships. (AO2)
- Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce an interpretation with limited coherence and support from evidence. (AO2)
- Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce an unsupported or generic conclusion, drawn from an argument that is unbalanced or lacks coherence. (AO2)
2 6–10
- Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is occasionally relevant and may include some inaccuracies. (AO1)
- Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas with limited but logical connections/relationships. (AO2)
- Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical ideas in order to produce a partial interpretation that is supported by some evidence but has limited coherence. (AO2)
- Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to come to a conclusion, partially supported by an unbalanced argument with limited coherence. (AO2)
3 11–15
- Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is mostly relevant and accurate. (AO1)
- Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to find some logical and relevant connections/relationships. (AO2)
- Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical ideas in order to produce a partial but coherent interpretation that is supported by some evidence. (AO2)
- Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to come to a conclusion, largely supported by an argument that may be unbalanced or partially coherent. (AO2)
4 16–20
- Demonstrates accurate and relevant geographical knowledge and understanding throughout. (AO1)
- Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to find fully logical and relevant connections/relationships. (AO2)
- Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce a full and coherent interpretation that is supported by evidence. (AO2)
- Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to come to a rational, substantiated conclusion, fully supported by a balanced argument that is drawn together coherently. (AO2)
Relevant content may include:

AO1
- Hard engineering provides a techno-fix solution to water insecurity by building solid structures to control rivers. These schemes are usually expensive, require high maintenance, and are not always sustainable.
- Sustainable schemes aim to ensure resources are protected for future generations by conserving supplies and reducing demands, as well as working more with natural processes.
- Water-sharing treaties and agreements based on entire drainage basins may incorporate the points above, but need political engagement and good governance to work.
AO2
- Arguments against include the issues connected to hard engineering projects. The construction of large dams to control water flow and to create reservoirs for storage. The diversion of water from an area of surplus to deficit, sometimes across huge distances, using a series of canals/canalised rivers, pumps, and pipelines. Seawater is turned into freshwater at coastal locations using salt-separating membranes and the process of reverse osmosis via desalination.
- The threat of conflict and complexity of large basin management may also be used as an argument.
- However, there are many possible arguments in favour of becoming more sustainable. Restoring lakes and rivers to a more natural condition reduces the need for expensive hard engineering and maintenance, and increases water stores while improving ecosystems. Restoration schemes involve restoring natural meanders to slow flows and increase water storage, reflooding large areas to recreate wetlands (sometimes with the reintroduction of beavers), reducing abstraction from aquifers to allow them to recharge naturally.
- Conserving water reduces demand and makes water use more efficient. Smart irrigation methods include drip irrigation rather than using sprinklers, saving water and money, and hydroponics (the growing of crops without soil in greenhouses and drip-feeding water and nutrients).
- Recycling water uses ‘grey water’ from cities for agriculture (reduces demand), and rainwater and sewage can be purified via filtration and used as drinking water, such as in Singapore.
- Large rivers can be also managed in a holistic manner through integrated water resource management (IWRM). This aims to coordinate the development and management of resources between the different players involved, consider the whole drainage basin and natural hydrology, maximise economic and social services in an equitable manner, protect the sustainability of ecosystems.
- Water-sharing treaties and frameworks (e.g. the United Nations ‘Economic Commission for Europe’ (UNECE) water convention) aim to reduce the risks of conflicts and increase the efficiency of water usage. They are governed by IGOs (inter-governmental organisations).

AO1 = 5 / AO2 = 15

Level	Marks	Description
	0	No rewardable material.
1	1–5	Demonstrates isolated elements of geographical knowledge and understanding, some of which may be inaccurate or irrelevant. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical ideas, making limited and rarely logical connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce an interpretation with limited coherence and support from evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce an unsupported or generic conclusion, drawn from an argument that is unbalanced or lacks coherence. (AO2)
2	6–10	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is occasionally relevant and may include some inaccuracies. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas with limited but logical connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical ideas in order to produce a partial interpretation that is supported by some evidence but has limited coherence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to come to a conclusion, partially supported by an unbalanced argument with limited coherence. (AO2)
3	11–15	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is mostly relevant and accurate. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to find some logical and relevant connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical ideas in order to produce a partial but coherent interpretation that is supported by some evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to come to a conclusion, largely supported by an argument that may be unbalanced or partially coherent. (AO2)
4	16–20	Demonstrates accurate and relevant geographical knowledge and understanding throughout. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to find fully logical and relevant connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce a full and coherent interpretation that is supported by evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to come to a rational, substantiated conclusion, fully supported by a balanced argument that is drawn together coherently. (AO2)

Relevant content may include:

AO1

Impacts on economic development: industry, energy supply, agriculture.
Impacts on human wellbeing: sanitation, health, and food preparation.
Impacts on ecosystems.

AO2

Impacts on people:

Impact on industries, as without cheap or accessible water, many manufacturing industries couldn’t function and would close. This is especially true for chemical and electronic industries, which require water for products, manufacturing, cleaning, and cooling, with developed countries using 59% of their total water this way.
A reduction in supply could mean short-term blackouts and long-term closure of heavy industries. All thermal power stations require vast amounts of water (80% of energy use globally). Hydroelectric plants run on water alone.
Food shortages quickly arise with lack of water, leading to famine and civil unrest. High crop yields are vital for food security and economic prosperity, requiring abstraction of water for irrigation.
Poor sanitation can lead to debilitating diseases, such as cholera, through the consumption of unsafe water. Clean water is required for hygiene, washing and cleaning, and ultimately a good quality of life. Clean hands, and food washed in clean water, prevents the spread of disease. Waterborne diseases affect life expectancy, education, the ability to work productively, and lead to increased poverty.
Water insecurity can lead to conflicts within a country and between countries if a drainage basin crosses international borders (transboundary conflicts). The ‘fair share’ of water a country deserves is controversial, especially if a country constructs dams that limit the downstream flow to other countries. For example, internal conflicts within Australia on the largest river catchment, the Murray and Darling rivers, which are home to 2 million people.

Impacts on environment:

Drought reduces the surface water store which makes up freshwater wetlands. Causes may relate to reductions in seasonal rains such as those affecting the Pantanal, Brazil. It will dry out with huge impacts on all insects, fish, birds, and mammals dependent upon the biodiverse ecosystem which may become prone to fires. It will also lose its function as a filter for pollutants and sediment, further affecting ecosystems.
Forest ecosystems: drought causes ‘forest stress’, meaning trees die and shed leaves. This leads to reduced evapotranspiration which can reduce precipitation levels even further as part of a positive feedback. Forest fires can also break out much more easily in the dry conditions, reducing vegetation even further. If a tipping point is reached, then the ecosystem will change into a new state more suited to the drier conditions (e.g. tropical rainforest in the Amazon changing to savannah).

AO1 = 5 / AO2 = 15

Level	Marks	Description
	0	No rewardable material.
1	1–5	Demonstrates isolated elements of geographical knowledge and understanding, some of which may be inaccurate or irrelevant. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical ideas, making limited and rarely logical connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce an interpretation with limited coherence and support from evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce an unsupported or generic conclusion, drawn from an argument that is unbalanced or lacks coherence. (AO2)
2	6–10	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is occasionally relevant and may include some inaccuracies. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas with limited but logical connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical ideas in order to produce a partial interpretation that is supported by some evidence but has limited coherence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to come to a conclusion, partially supported by an unbalanced argument with limited coherence. (AO2)
3	11–15	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is mostly relevant and accurate. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to find some logical and relevant connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical ideas in order to produce a partial but coherent interpretation that is supported by some evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to come to a conclusion, largely supported by an argument that may be unbalanced or partially coherent. (AO2)
4	16–20	Demonstrates accurate and relevant geographical knowledge and understanding throughout. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to find fully logical and relevant connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce a full and coherent interpretation that is supported by evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to come to a rational, substantiated conclusion, fully supported by a balanced argument that is drawn together coherently. (AO2)

Relevant content may include:

AO1

Water scarcity means continuous water shortages and deficit, causing major impacts on the environment, economy, and quality of life. Physical scarcity: water supply does not meet the demand. Economic scarcity: people cannot afford potentially available water.
Hard engineering provides a techno-fix solution to water insecurity by building solid structures to control rivers. These schemes are usually expensive, require high maintenance, and are not always sustainable.
Sustainable schemes aim to ensure resources are protected for future generations by conserving supplies and reducing demands, as well as working more with natural processes.
Water-sharing treaties and agreements based on entire drainage basins may incorporate the points above, but need political engagement and good governance to work.

AO2

Arguments against include the issues connected to hard engineering projects. The construction of large dams to control water flow and to create reservoirs for storage. The diversion of water from an area of surplus to deficit, sometimes across huge distances, using a series of canals/canalised rivers, pumps, and pipelines. Seawater is turned into freshwater at coastal locations using salt-separating membranes and the process of reverse osmosis via desalination.
However, many problems exist with hard engineering, including deficits in the source region, flooding of land, and ecosystem damage.
Perhaps a major issue is the potential for conflicts if constructing a dam on a headwater.
There may be many arguments looking at alternatives, which may be more successful.
Restoring lakes and rivers to a more natural condition reduces the need for expensive hard engineering and maintenance, and increases water stores while improving ecosystems. Restoration schemes involve restoring natural meanders to slow flows and increase water storage, reflooding large areas to recreate wetlands (sometime with the reintroduction of beavers), and reducing abstraction from aquifers to allow them to recharge naturally.
Conserving water reduces demand and makes water use more efficient. Smart irrigation methods include drip irrigation rather than using sprinklers, saving water and money, and hydroponics (the growing of crops without soil in greenhouses and drip-feeding water and nutrients). Recycling water uses ‘grey water’ from cities for agriculture (reduces demand), and rainwater and sewage can be purified via filtration and used as drinking water such as in Singapore.
Large rivers can be also managed in a holistic manner through integrated water resource management (IWRM). This aims to coordinate the development and management of resources between the different players involved, consider the whole drainage basin and natural hydrology, maximise economic and social services in an equitable manner, and protect the sustainability of ecosystems.
Water-sharing treaties and frameworks (e.g. the United Nations ‘Economic Commission for Europe’ (UNECE) water convention) aim to reduce the risks of conflicts and increase the efficiency of water usage. They are governed by IGOs (inter-governmental organisations).

AO1 = 5 / AO2 = 15

Level	Marks	Description
	0	No rewardable material.
1	1–5	Demonstrates isolated elements of geographical knowledge and understanding, some of which may be inaccurate or irrelevant. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical ideas, making limited and rarely logical connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce an interpretation with limited coherence and support from evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce an unsupported or generic conclusion, drawn from an argument that is unbalanced or lacks coherence. (AO2)
2	6–10	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is occasionally relevant and may include some inaccuracies. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas with limited but logical connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical ideas in order to produce a partial interpretation that is supported by some evidence but has limited coherence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to come to a conclusion, partially supported by an unbalanced argument with limited coherence. (AO2)
3	11–15	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is mostly relevant and accurate. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to find some logical and relevant connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical ideas in order to produce a partial but coherent interpretation that is supported by some evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to come to a conclusion, largely supported by an argument that may be unbalanced or partially coherent. (AO2)
4	16–20	Demonstrates accurate and relevant geographical knowledge and understanding throughout. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to find fully logical and relevant connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce a full and coherent interpretation that is supported by evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to come to a rational, substantiated conclusion, fully supported by a balanced argument that is drawn together coherently. (AO2)

Relevant content may include:

AO1

How fossil fuel combustion has altered the balance of carbon fluxes and stores, with impacts upon the climate, ecosystems, and the water cycle.
The global atmosphere is regulated by both cycles which interlink and overlap.
Ocean acidification may affect coral reefs and other marine ecosystems that provide vital ecosystem services. This threatens human wellbeing, especially in developing regions that depend on marine food sources, tourism, and coastal protection of coral reefs.
Forest loss has implications for human wellbeing (environmental Kuznets’ curve model).
Climate change has significant impacts on the hydrological cycle locally and globally as the planet warms up, increasing the risks of droughts or floods. It affects stores and flows in different ways in different locations.

AO2

The health of soils may be affected, threatening ecosystem productivity. Wetland ecosystems are likely to deteriorate and could suffer irreversible damage, affecting local people reliant on them for food security.
Changes to the carbon cycle will impact upon ocean acidification, as the ocean is a carbon sink. This will affect the health of coral reefs and other marine ecosystems that provide vital ecosystem services and protect coastlines, as well as offer avenues for tourism and economic growth. Therefore, a significant threat. Fishing and fish sticks would also be affected with acidification, with molluscs especially affected due to their calcium shells.
Forest health will likely deteriorate as changes to the carbon cycle increase forest stress. Forest loss impacts human wellbeing in developing countries, and impacts both cycles, but especially water at the local scale with impacts on precipitation, river regimes, water stores, and water security.
Droughts and floods may become more common, with cycles like ENSO exacerbating these. This will further affect the two cycles and possibly lead to feedback mechanisms or tipping points coming into play.
Various adaptation and mitigation methods may be applied and form part of counterarguments when discussing points.
Changes to both cycles threaten human activity, and they interlink. Developed nations will be able to adapt more easily and are less exposed. Developing nations will likely compound issues by the pressures of population and economic growth. The impacts on the water cycle may be short-term and carbon cycle longer-term, unless a tipping point is reached.

Chapter 8

All exemplar answers given are likely to be in the top mark band.

All questions are point-marked.

AO1 = 6

Level	Marks	Description
	0	No rewardable material.
1	1–2	Demonstrates isolated elements of geographical knowledge and understanding, some of which may be inaccurate or irrelevant. (AO1) Understanding addresses a narrow range of geographical ideas. (AO1) Understanding of geographical ideas lacks detail. (AO1)
2	3–4	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is mostly relevant and may include some inaccuracies. (AO1) Understanding addresses a range of geographical ideas. (AO1) Understanding of geographical ideas is not fully detailed and/or developed. (AO1)
3	5–6	Demonstrates accurate and relevant geographical knowledge and understanding throughout. (AO1) Understanding addresses a broad range of geographical ideas. (AO1) Understanding of geographical ideas is detailed and fully developed. (AO1)

Relevant content may include:

The long-term nature of the geological cycle (100–200 million years).
The amount of carbon moved every year 0.01–0.1 Gt.
Volcanic outgassing returns carbon dioxide (CO₂) into the atmosphere from the mantle (and into the ocean from underwater eruptions). This is a transfer (flux) from the lithosphere.
Volcanic outgassing can occur at convergent or divergent plate margins, as well as volcanic hotspots.
Chemical weathering of rocks starts with a weak carbonic acid being created as CO₂ mixes with rainwater, which reacts with the minerals in the rock, breaking them down into component ions of carbon, oxygen, and calcium. These are transported in rivers to the oceans where they combine with bicarbonate ions to form calcium carbonate and precipitate out as calcite.
Deposition, accumulation, cementation, diagenesis, and lithification combine to turn calcite sediment into limestone.
Subduction at plate margins melts the limestone, during which oxidation occurs and chlorine gas (Cl₂) is released, which is then vented during an eruption.
Tectonic uplift can also expose previously buried limestone.

Example answer: Carbon is transferred from the atmosphere to the lithosphere by chemical weathering, during which rain combines with carbon dioxide to form a weak carbonic acid. This reacts with rock minerals, breaking them down into their component ions of carbon, oxygen, and calcium. Rivers transport these ions to oceans where they combine with bicarbonate ions to form calcium carbonate. Over long periods of time, calcium carbonate is deposited on the sea floor and through a series of processes such as cementation is turned into limestone. The carbon contained in the limestone can be returned to the atmosphere when subduction at plate margins melts the rock and carbon dioxide is released, which is then vented during an eruption in a process known as volcanic outgassing.

AO1 = 6

Level	Marks	Description
	0	No rewardable material.
1	1–2	Demonstrates isolated elements of geographical knowledge and understanding, some of which may be inaccurate or irrelevant. (AO1) Understanding addresses a narrow range of geographical ideas. (AO1) Understanding of geographical ideas lacks detail. (AO1)
2	3–4	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is mostly relevant and may include some inaccuracies. (AO1) Understanding addresses a range of geographical ideas. (AO1) Understanding of geographical ideas is not fully detailed and/or developed. (AO1)
3	5–6	Demonstrates accurate and relevant geographical knowledge and understanding throughout. (AO1) Understanding addresses a broad range of geographical ideas. (AO1) Understanding of geographical ideas is detailed and fully developed. (AO1)

Relevant content may include:

There is accumulation of sediments and organisms on the sea floor, which degrade over time.
Fossil fuels are formed from biologically derived carbon from decomposed organisms.
Continued accumulation leads to increasing pressure and heat (compression) of the sediments on the bottom, leading to chemical reactions and the formation of insoluble geopolymer compounds.
Thermocatalytic reactions occur when pressure and heat are intense due to compression and burial, leading to creation of rocks rich in organic matter.
At depths of greater than 2500 m, oil and gas can form.

O1 = 6

Level	Marks	Description
	0	No rewardable material.
1	1–2	Demonstrates isolated elements of geographical knowledge and understanding, some of which may be inaccurate or irrelevant. (AO1) Understanding addresses a narrow range of geographical ideas. (AO1) Understanding of geographical ideas lacks detail. (AO1)

Level	Marks	Description
2	3–4	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is mostly relevant and may include some inaccuracies. (AO1) Understanding addresses a range of geographical ideas. (AO1) Understanding of geographical ideas is not fully detailed and/or developed. (AO1)
3	5–6	Demonstrates accurate and relevant geographical knowledge and understanding throughout. (AO1) Understanding addresses a broad range of geographical ideas. (AO1) Understanding of geographical ideas is detailed and fully developed. (AO1)

Relevant content may include:

Photosynthesis is the largest transfer of carbon. Terrestrial primary producers transfer 123PgC/yr and marine phytoplankton 80PgC/yr.
Respiration returns 197.1PgC/yr from land and sea to the atmosphere. Therefore, photosynthesis creates carbon sinks in terrestrial and marine biomass.
It sequesters carbon from the atmosphere to the biosphere where it is stored in biomass and soil once plants die and decompose. Therefore, photosynthesis helps to regulate the atmospheric store of carbon.
It is especially high where there are no limiting factors such as less daylight, lower temperatures, or lack of water (e.g. mangrove forests).
About 1000 times more carbon dioxide is taken from the atmosphere by photosynthesis than is released back to it.

AO1 = 6

Level	Marks	Description
	0	No rewardable material.
1	1–2	Demonstrates isolated elements of geographical knowledge and understanding, some of which may be inaccurate or irrelevant. (AO1) Understanding addresses a narrow range of geographical ideas. (AO1) Understanding of geographical ideas lacks detail. (AO1)
2	3–4	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is mostly relevant and may include some inaccuracies. (AO1) Understanding addresses a range of geographical ideas. (AO1) Understanding of geographical ideas is not fully detailed and/or developed. (AO1)
3	5–6	Demonstrates accurate and relevant geographical knowledge and understanding throughout. (AO1) Understanding addresses a broad range of geographical ideas. (AO1) Understanding of geographical ideas is detailed and fully developed. (AO1)

Relevant content may include:

The carbonate pump sequesters CO₂ through photosynthesis by phytoplankton in surface waters.
CO₂ also dissolves in the ocean and reacts chemically with water to form carbonic acid.
Carbonic acid reacts chemically to form calcium carbonate in the shells and skeletons of marine organisms: e.g. crabs, zooplankton, and oysters.
These organisms sink to the deep ocean when they die and accumulate on the seabed forming calcareous ooze and limestone in the longer term where carbon is locked into the geological cycle.
Respiration and decomposition return some gaseous carbon to the atmosphere, but this is less than the rate of respiration, so the ocean is a carbon sink.
Cooler oceans can absorb more CO₂ than warmer oceans.

Example answer: Carbon dioxide can be dissolved into surface waters of the ocean. This is because there is a difference in pressure between the atmosphere and the ocean. When the pressure is higher in the atmosphere CO₂ dissolves into the ocean.

Carbon dioxide is also transferred by photosynthesis. Microscopic phytoplankton and zooplankton use sunlight to photosynthesize, taking in CO₂ and converting it into organic matter. This process is more rapid in the tropics and shallow oceans.

When phytoplankton die or are eaten by other marine organisms, some of the carbon contained in their bodies sinks to the deeper parts of the ocean. This transfer of carbon from the surface to the deep ocean is known as the biological pump. It removes CO₂ from the atmosphere and stores it in the ocean’s depths for long periods.

AO1 = 6

Level	Marks	Description
	0	No rewardable material.
1	1–2	Demonstrates isolated elements of geographical knowledge and understanding, some of which may be inaccurate or irrelevant. (AO1) Understanding addresses a narrow range of geographical ideas. (AO1) Understanding of geographical ideas lacks detail. (AO1)
2	3–4	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is mostly relevant and may include some inaccuracies. (AO1) Understanding addresses a range of geographical ideas. (AO1) Understanding of geographical ideas is not fully detailed and/or developed. (AO1)
3	5–6	Demonstrates accurate and relevant geographical knowledge and understanding throughout. (AO1) Understanding addresses a broad range of geographical ideas. (AO1) Understanding of geographical ideas is detailed and fully developed. (AO1)

Relevant content may include:

LICs have lower energy consumption per capita due to inaccessibility such as limited electricity supply in rural areas or lower disposable incomes.
Many people rely on biomass (e.g. wood or dung) as it is free or cheaper for heat and cooking.
Agricultural energy consumption is low in LICs as most are subsistence farmers, whereas in HICs it is high due to mechanised agricultural systems.
Transport and car ownership in emerging economies and HICs increases energy consumption.
Emerging economies tend to have large manufacturing industries which also increases energy consumption.
As technology develops and energy efficiency improves per capita, consumption decreases in HICs.
Government policies encourage energy efficiency in some HICs alongside public awareness and perception around sustainable lifestyles.

AO1 = 3 / AO2 = 3

Level	Marks	Description
	0	No rewardable material.
1	1–2	Demonstrates isolated or generic elements of geographical knowledge and understanding, some of which may be inaccurate or irrelevant. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding to geographical information inconsistently. Connections/relationships between stimulus material and the question may be irrelevant. (AO2)
2	3–4	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is mostly relevant and may include some inaccuracies. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding to geographical information to find some relevant connections/relationships between stimulus material and the question. (AO2)
3	5–6	Demonstrates accurate and relevant geographical knowledge and understanding throughout. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding to geographical information logically to find fully relevant connections/relationships between stimulus material and the question. (AO2)

Relevant content may include:

Lower in Europe and becoming a sink, as is the USA (AO2), as many countries focus on afforestation, which then increases biomass and rates of photosynthesis, which transfers CO₂ from the atmosphere into the biomass store. (AO1)
Exponential growth in South Asia (AO2), as many countries have high population growth rates and high total populations (AO1), but also increasing affluence, which increases demand for energy and food, particularly meat-based diets (AO1). Also, many NICs in this region of the world where, due to industrialisation, land-use change is rapid. (AO1)
Exponential growth in South America (AO2), as there are many tropical rainforests there such as Brazil (AO2) and rates of deforestation are high due to land-use change to agriculture to grow food and biofuels (AO1). Deforestation reduces carbon storage in forests and soils, reducing pedosphere storage, and ploughing releases carbon into the atmosphere. (AO1)

AO1 = 3 / AO2 = 3

Level	Marks	Description
	0	No rewardable material.
1	1–2	Demonstrates isolated or generic elements of geographical knowledge and understanding, some of which may be inaccurate or irrelevant. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding to geographical information inconsistently. Connections/relationships between stimulus material and the question may be irrelevant. (AO2)

Level	Marks	Description
2	3–4	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is mostly relevant and may include some inaccuracies. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding to geographical information to find some relevant connections/relationships between stimulus material and the question. (AO2)
3	5–6	Demonstrates accurate and relevant geographical knowledge and understanding throughout. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding to geographical information logically to find fully relevant connections/relationships between stimulus material and the question. (AO2)

Relevant content may include:

AO1

The role of deforestation in increasing atmospheric CO₂ due to reduced photosynthesis. Deforestation, anthropogenic climate change and shifting climate belts are creating positive feedback loops leading to, for example, more frequent droughts.
Human activities (burning fossil fuels, land degradation etc) in transfer large quantities of carbon from long-term geological stores into the atmosphere.
The CO₂ fertilisation effect that results from increased levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere has increased the rate of photosynthesis in plants.

AO2

Reference to a range of ideas from the diagram, and use of vocabulary and concepts from the diagram in a meaningful way.
Developed connections and explanations of how processes are modified and become positive feedback loops.

AO1 = 3 / AO2 = 3

Level	Marks	Description
	0	No rewardable material.
1	1–2	Demonstrates isolated or generic elements of geographical knowledge and understanding, some of which may be inaccurate or irrelevant. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding to geographical information inconsistently. Connections/relationships between stimulus material and the question may be irrelevant. (AO2)
2	3–4	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is mostly relevant and may include some inaccuracies. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding to geographical information to find some relevant connections/relationships between stimulus material and the question. (AO2)

Level	Marks	Description
3	5–6	Demonstrates accurate and relevant geographical knowledge and understanding throughout. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding to geographical information logically to find fully relevant connections/relationships between stimulus material and the question. (AO2)

Relevant content may include:

AO1

Projected global surface warming is related to continued combustion of fossil fuels, which add CO₂ to the atmosphere, enhancing the greenhouse effect.
Temperature increases are driven by industrialising economies.
Range is caused by uncertainty over several human and physical factors and how these may change.

AO2

There is a range of possible future rises in temperature of between 2 and 4 degrees Celsius linked to a range of emission scenarios.
Highest warming would be caused by factors such as:
- ○ Continued dependence on fossil fuels for economic growth and minimal initiatives to diversify energy mixes to renewable energy sources.
- ○ Positive feedback loops amplifying warming, such as thawing in permafrost in the Arctic.
- ○ Lack of investment into viable mitigation strategies.
Lowest warming would be caused by factors such as:
- ○ A reduction in greenhouse gas emissions by more investment and success of alternative energy sources.
- ○ Countries ratify commitments made at the Paris Agreement into national laws.
- ○ Future economic growth is decoupled from fossil fuels.

AO1 = 8

Level	Marks	Description
	0	No rewardable material.
1	1–2	Demonstrates isolated elements of geographical knowledge and understanding, some of which may be inaccurate or irrelevant. (AO1) Understanding addresses a narrow range of geographical ideas, which lacks detail. (AO1)
2	3–5	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is mostly relevant and may include some inaccuracies. (AO1) Understanding addresses a range of geographical ideas, which are not fully detailed and/or developed. (AO1)
3	6–8	Demonstrates accurate and relevant geographical knowledge and understanding throughout. (AO1) Understanding addresses a broad range of geographical ideas, which are detailed and fully developed. (AO1)

Relevant content may include:

Government policies to decarbonise energy supplies lead to greater use of renewable sources; the UK and Norway aim to do this by 2050. The UK currently generates around 30% of electricity demand from wind, Norway generates 72% from renewables.
Energy systems, such as in Norway, are highly electrified to heat and light homes and industry, whereas the UK still relies heavily on natural gas.
Physical availability: countries rich in oil and gas use a lot as it decreases cost and makes them more energy secure (e.g. Saudi Arabia). The UK government recently announced plans to open up Rosebank, a large North Sea Oil and Gas field. Norway is rich in oil and gas and exports most of it.
HICs have more capital to invest in more complex technologies, which enable resources such as nuclear to be exploited.
As the relative cost of renewables decreases and prices of oil and gas rise, there is a cost benefit in investing in renewable technologies.
The key goal of governments is for energy security, which is achieved through exploiting domestic resources and building political alliances with allies. This will affect which energy resource is used in their mixes.

Example answer: Physical availability of different energy sources within a country varies. For example, due to geology, some countries, such as the UAE, are rich in fossil fuel deposits (e.g. oil) and will therefore use these as a major part of their energy mix. In contrast, other countries may have to rely on imported fossil fuels and so seek alternatives within their energy mixes. Secondly HICs have more capital to invest in more complex technologies, which, if combined with favourable conditions for FDI in market-led economies, leads to growth and investments in renewable technologies. As well as this, government policies will determine the relative importance of different energy sources in energy mixes. For example, the UK government is seeking to decarbonise the country’s electricity supply by 2050, which has meant investment into wind and solar as well as the construction of Hinkley Point C in Somerset which, when online, will provide 7% of the UK’s electricity. Finally historical policies and investments can determine current energy mixes. For example, the UK is heavily reliant on natural gas due to decisions in the past. In contrast, Norway has a much more electrified system to power homes, much of which is generated from hydroelectric power.

AO1 = 8

Level	Marks	Description
	0	No rewardable material.
1	1–2	Demonstrates isolated elements of geographical knowledge and understanding, some of which may be inaccurate or irrelevant. (AO1) Understanding addresses a narrow range of geographical ideas, which lacks detail. (AO1)
2	3–5	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is mostly relevant and may include some inaccuracies. (AO1) Understanding addresses a range of geographical ideas, which are not fully detailed and/or developed. (AO1)
3	6–8	Demonstrates accurate and relevant geographical knowledge and understanding throughout. (AO1) Understanding addresses a broad range of geographical ideas, which are detailed and fully developed. (AO1)

Relevant content may include:

Bilateral agreements (e.g., ENSO pipeline from Russia to China) are less prone to disruption than multilateral agreements (e.g. Russian gas to the EU).
The longer a pathway is, the more prone to disruption. For example, shipping lanes passing through choke points such as the Suez Canal, or areas of piracy such as the Straits of Malacca.
Disruption is more frequent when the producing country/region are politically unstable (e.g. Iraq and the Middle East).
Oil and gas have frequently been at the root of international tensions (e.g. Russian gas to the EU). Development of reasons for this, such as tensions over Ukraine joining the EU and NATO, invasion by Russia of a sovereign nation, how this war has exposed the EU’s reliance on Russian gas and resulting price rises on energy and goods and services.
Choke points (e.g. the Suez Canal or Red Sea) are particularly vulnerable due to political instability and terrorism.

AO1 = 8

Level	Marks	Description
	0	No rewardable material.
1	1–2	Demonstrates isolated elements of geographical knowledge and understanding, some of which may be inaccurate or irrelevant. (AO1) Understanding addresses a narrow range of geographical ideas, which lacks detail. (AO1)
2	3–5	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is mostly relevant and may include some inaccuracies. (AO1) Understanding addresses a range of geographical ideas, which are not fully detailed and/or developed. (AO1)
3	6–8	Demonstrates accurate and relevant geographical knowledge and understanding throughout. (AO1) Understanding addresses a broad range of geographical ideas, which are detailed and fully developed. (AO1)

Relevant content may include:

A national commitment will lead to a decrease in the use of fossil fuels as a primary energy source, whether domestic or imported. For example, all coal-fired power stations are due to close in 2025 and the production of oil and gas has been decreasing since 2000.
It will lead to an increase in the investment and the use of renewable energy sources, although this depends on the climate of a country. For example, solar contributes up to 4.4% of the energy mix and wind up to 30%; in other countries this would vary.
Government policies will shift toward more radical technologies. For example, electric vehicles or carbon capture and storage or hydrogen fuel cells.
Government policies will also shift towards a focus on efficiency to reduce energy consumption per capita and the national carbon footprint.
Biofuels may be used, such as in Brazil, as the process of burning biofuels is carbon neutral: CO₂ taken in by a plant during photosynthesis will then be released during combustion.

AO1 = 8

Level	Marks	Description
	0	No rewardable material.
1	1–2	Demonstrates isolated elements of geographical knowledge and understanding, some of which may be inaccurate or irrelevant. (AO1) Understanding addresses a narrow range of geographical ideas, which lacks detail. (AO1)
2	3–5	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is mostly relevant and may include some inaccuracies. (AO1) Understanding addresses a range of geographical ideas, which are not fully detailed and/or developed. (AO1)
3	6–8	Demonstrates accurate and relevant geographical knowledge and understanding throughout. (AO1) Understanding addresses a broad range of geographical ideas, which are detailed and fully developed. (AO1)

Relevant content may include:

Positive feedback loops could amplify warming as:
- ○ More CO₂ and methane could be released from biosphere due to thawing of permafrost in the Arctic, which would enable trapped gases to escape. Gas would enter the atmospheric store, trapping more terrestrial heat energy and leading to more warming.
- ○ More warming, causing shifting climate belts, and more droughts, leading to waterlogged peat deposits, which are rich in carbon, drying out as the water table falls, thus enabling the escape of greenhouse gases. Methane has a warming capacity 21-times greater than CO₂.
Negative feedback loops could slow down warming as:
- ○ There could be an increase in the rate of plant growth (net primary productivity) as there is more CO₂ in the atmosphere, so the biosphere increases its capacity as a carbon sink, so mitigating against atmospheric warming. Equally, vegetation may become more widespread in high latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere, as taiga and boreal forests may migrate north due to higher temperatures.
- ○ An increase in cloud cover caused by more water vapour held in warmer air could reflect more solar radiation, reducing the amount of solar radiation which reaches the surface and therefore reduces the amount of terrestrial radiation being absorbed by greenhouse gases.
Tipping points include:
- ○ Atlantic Thermohaline Circulation could collapse due to changes in water density and salinity caused by melting ice sheets. This would weaken the flow of the North Atlantic Drift, meaning that less heat is transferred towards the higher latitudes of Western Europe. This would change temperatures of countries like the UK significantly.
- ○ The dieback of tropical forests due to shifting climate belts, leading to increased drought, meaning that these become a carbon source rather than a carbon sink.

AO1 = 3 / AO2 = 9

Level	Marks	Description
	0	No rewardable material.
1	1–4	Demonstrates isolated elements of geographical knowledge and understanding, some of which may be inaccurate. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas, making limited logical connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce an interpretation that is not relevant and/or supported by evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce an unbalanced argument that lacks coherence and makes judgements that are generic and unsupported by evidence. (AO2)
2	5–8	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is mostly relevant and may include some inaccuracies. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas logically, making some relevant connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding to geographical information/ideas to produce a partial but coherent interpretation that is mostly relevant and supported by evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding to geographical information/ideas to produce an unbalanced, partially supported argument that is drawn together with some coherence in order to make judgements. (AO2)
3	9–12	Demonstrates accurate and relevant geographical knowledge and understanding throughout. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding to geographical information/ideas logically, making relevant connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding to geographical information/ideas to produce a full and coherent interpretation that is relevant and supported by evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding to geographical information/ideas to produce a balanced, fully-supported argument that is drawn together coherently in order to make rational judgements. (AO2)

Relevant content may include:

AO1

Collapse of ecosystems due to climate warming can have impacts on biodiversity.
Knowledge of short- and long-term stores (e.g. atmosphere, biosphere, and pedosphere), processes (e.g. photosynthesis and respiration) which transfer carbon.
Tundra is found in the Arctic where climate change impacts are amplified and melting permafrost is significant for future climate change.
Uncertainty over the rate of these processes and therefore the possible impacts.

AO2

Connections and relationships between the melting of permafrost and subsequent release of methane and CO₂ from the biosphere store into the atmospheric store, leading to climate warming.
Connections and relationships between carbon sequestration, through photosynthesis on the biosphere store on plant productivity and soil organic matter.
Increase in net primary productivity due to climate warming, leading to longer growing seasons and therefore increased rates of photosynthesis as fewer limiting factors.
Greater rates of respiration, leading to greater transfers of carbon to the atmosphere.
Relationships between increased NPP, warming climate, increased rates of decomposition, and greater soil organic matter.
Judgements about the significance of each of the stores and fluxes. For example, the biosphere is a relatively large store of carbon, so fluxes from this could have a significant impact on the size of the atmospheric and soil carbon stores.
There is a positive feedback loop indicated on the diagram, showing that the key effect of climate warming will be to heat up air temperatures, which will, in time, lead to increased vegetation cover and so increase air temperatures further.
There are three greenhouse gases shown on diagram, with methane perhaps being the most significant, but there will also be changes in carbon dioxide (CO₂) and nitrous oxide (NO).
The different peat depths indicated on the diagram will undergo different rates of change. For example, warming will increase the activity of microbes, resulting in a release of nitrous oxide, a potent greenhouse gas, with significant impacts on soil stores over years/decades.

Example answer: Arguably the most significant negative impact of climate warming, driven by combustion of fossil fuels, is the melting of permafrost and subsequent release of methane and carbon dioxide (CO₂) from the biosphere store into the atmospheric store. This is because, with the addition of more greenhouse gases into the atmosphere, the enhanced greenhouse effect will drive further global warming, which is particularly amplified in the Arctic where taiga forest is found. In particular, the release of huge volumes of methane gas from the permafrost is concerning as it has a warming potential 28-times greater than CO₂. Additionally, the release of these gases is from ancient stores which are trapped deep underground in the large biosphere and soil carbon stores, adding to further imbalances in the carbon cycle.

Another significant impact shown on the diagram is that a warming climate could drive increased rates of photosynthesis, respiration, and decomposition. This is because, as temperature increases, plants can grow for longer. In other words, net primary productivity would increase, although daylight is still going to be a limiting factor. With increased temperature in the taiga, biodiversity may also increase, which in turn will increase photosynthesis. With increased rates of decomposition in a warmed environment, the transfer of carbon in the soil carbon store will also increase, thereby trapping more CO₂ from the atmosphere. However, increased microbes in the soil would result in the release of nitrous oxide, which is a potent greenhouse gas.

AO1 = 3 / AO2 = 9

Level	Marks	Description
	0	No rewardable material.
1	1–4	Demonstrates isolated elements of geographical knowledge and understanding, some of which may be inaccurate. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas, making limited logical connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce an interpretation that is not relevant and/or supported by evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce an unbalanced argument that lacks coherence and makes judgements that are generic and unsupported by evidence. (AO2)
2	5–8	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is mostly relevant and may include some inaccuracies. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas logically, making some relevant connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding to geographical information/ideas to produce a partial but coherent interpretation that is mostly relevant and supported by evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding to geographical information/ideas to produce an unbalanced, partially supported argument that is drawn together with some coherence in order to make judgements. (AO2)
3	9–12	Demonstrates accurate and relevant geographical knowledge and understanding throughout. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding to geographical information/ideas logically, making relevant connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding to geographical information/ideas to produce a full and coherent interpretation that is relevant and supported by evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding to geographical information/ideas to produce a balanced, fully-supported argument that is drawn together coherently in order to make rational judgements. (AO2)

Relevant content may include:

AO1

The carbon and water cycles are inter-related global systems, which transfer and store both water and carbon through a range of mechanisms (e.g. photosynthesis and decomposition).
Human activity includes land-use change, including deforestation and conversion of land for agriculture.
The impacts are on the short-term carbon cycle.

AO2

Application of knowledge and understanding of how land-use change will alter the carbon stores of soil and plants and modify the processes that transfer carbon, such as reduced leaf litter from leaf fall and therefore less decomposition, which in turn leads to less organic matter in soils.
Understanding of how some of these modifications will be long-term (e.g. aquifer groundwater storage) and others short-term (e.g. more CO₂ released into the atmosphere when ploughing occurs, which is a seasonal activity).
Positive feedback loops occur, which destabilise the water and carbon cycles. For example, deforestation impacts the pedosphere, the atmosphere, and the biosphere, interrelated processes are modified, and systems become unbalanced and may reach tipping points.
Judgements of which impacts are the worst.
Connections and relationships between the causal factors and impacts.
Afforestation is a human activity which brings positive rebalancing and will increase biomass storage of carbon as trees take carbon from the atmosphere through photosynthesis.

AO1 = 3 / AO2 = 9

Level	Marks	Description
	0	No rewardable material.
1	1–4	Demonstrates isolated elements of geographical knowledge and understanding, some of which may be inaccurate. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas, making limited logical connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce an interpretation that is not relevant and/or supported by evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce an unbalanced argument that lacks coherence and makes judgements that are generic and unsupported by evidence. (AO2)
2	5–8	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is mostly relevant and may include some inaccuracies. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas logically, making some relevant connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding to geographical information/ideas to produce a partial but coherent interpretation that is mostly relevant and supported by evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding to geographical information/ideas to produce an unbalanced, partially supported argument that is drawn together with some coherence in order to make judgements. (AO2)
3	9–12	Demonstrates accurate and relevant geographical knowledge and understanding throughout. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding to geographical information/ideas logically, making relevant connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding to geographical information/ideas to produce a full and coherent interpretation that is relevant and supported by evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding to geographical information/ideas to produce a balanced, fully-supported argument that is drawn together coherently in order to make rational judgements. (AO2)

Relevant content may include:

AO1

Knowledge and understanding of the workings of the water and carbon cycles.
Understanding as to how degradation of both cycles occurs via a range of human activities, as resources of water and carbon are utilised for basic human needs and economic prosperity (for example, deforestation, changing agricultural land use, fossil fuel combustion, or types of pollution).
Understanding that humans can be impacted on a range of scales, from local to global.

AO2

Assessment of the implications on human wellbeing such as health and security, supported by examples affecting a range of communities and countries for both cycles.
Consideration of degradation in the water supply. For example, by melting of glaciers and ice sheets, leading to water insecurity which impacts food production, domestic supplies, and industrial development. Depletion of surface water and ground water supplies, loss of cryosphere supplies (Andes), which all lead to loss of water security, which impacts on all communities for food production, domestic supplies, and industrial development.
Consideration of the impacts of changing land use to include deforestation, which can contribute to local and global impacts.
Ocean acidification can lead to the destruction of primary producers, such as krill in the polar regions, or coral reefs and mangroves, which impact directly on the lives of coastal communities.
Changes of sea level, an indirect result of global warming, can impact disproportionately on small island economies, leading ultimately to environmental refugees.
Degradation of carbon stores by deforestation, which has major implications for climate change—the major problem for human wellbeing.
Increased temperatures will lead to a range of impacts all impacting human wellbeing, from wildfires to flooding.

AO1 = 5 / AO2 = 15

Level	Marks	Description
	0	No rewardable material.
1	1–5	Demonstrates isolated elements of geographical knowledge and understanding, some of which may be inaccurate or irrelevant. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical ideas, making limited and rarely logical connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce an interpretation with limited coherence and support from evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce an unsupported or generic conclusion, drawn from an argument that is unbalanced or lacks coherence. (AO2)
2	6–10	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is occasionally relevant and may include some inaccuracies. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas with limited but logical connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical ideas in order to produce a partial interpretation that is supported by some evidence but has limited coherence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to come to a conclusion, partially supported by an unbalanced argument with limited coherence. (AO2)
3	11–15	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is mostly relevant and accurate. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to find some logical and relevant connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical ideas in order to produce a partial but coherent interpretation that is supported by some evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to come to a conclusion, largely supported by an argument that may be unbalanced or partially coherent. (AO2)
4	16–20	Demonstrates accurate and relevant geographical knowledge and understanding throughout. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to find fully logical and relevant connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce a full and coherent interpretation that is supported by evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to come to a rational, substantiated conclusion, fully supported by a balanced argument that is drawn together coherently. (AO2)

Relevant content may include:

AO1

Knowledge of a range of places where unconventional fossil fuels are exploited.
Concepts of energy security, peak oil, and energy pathways.
Knowledge of the difference between fossil fuels and unconventional ones.
Examples of unconventional fossil fuels: tar sands, shale gas and deep-water drilling.
Fossil fuel use is still the norm for the global economy.
80% of global primary energy consumption is fossil fuels.

AO2

Unconventional fossil fuels play a role in the global economy due to its reliance on fossil fuels.
Fossil fuels are finite resources. As they run out, new technologies enable the exploitation of unconventional fossil fuels.
The concept of energy security and the role of unconventional fossil fuels in helping with energy security. For example, important for reliable uninterrupted supplies, abundant domestic primary energy sources, and affordable energy.
Energy security is also important for economic growth and development and helps with social stability.
Advantages of unconventional fossil fuels such as delaying the time to peak oil, helping reduce the energy mismatch. Also improves domestic energy security (e.g. in Canada), reducing potential disruptions to energy pathways.
Tar sands provide economic growth for rural areas and improve the energy security of Canada.
Fracking is less polluting than coal or oil and provides the USA with 25% of its energy needs, leaving it less exposed to energy pathways.
Deep-water oil drilling brings FDI into the Brazilian economy through investment from energy TNCs.
Much energy infrastructure, engines, machines operate on oil, so continuing to have a source of fossil fuels would avoid changes to these, avoiding costs.
Social and environmental impacts may slow down exploitation.
Tar sands are highly polluting in sensitive taiga biomes, low NPP, and effects are long-term.
Impacts on carbon cycle with movement of carbon from a long-term store into the atmosphere and resulting impacts on climate change.
Impacts on local wildlife.
Inevitability, the degree of exploitation will depend on decisions taken by key players such as governments, TNCs, environmental pressure groups, and local communities.

Example answer: The view that the exploitation of unconventional fossil fuels, such as tar sands, shale gas, and deep-sea oil drilling is inevitable is a contentious topic, with valid arguments on both sides. However, with fossil fuels still contributing 80% of global primary energy needs, it currently seems likely that unconventional sources will continue to be exploited for a variety of reasons.

A major factor in favour of their exploitation is that they bring significant economic benefits and energy security. These resources can increase domestic production of energy resources, create jobs, and stimulate economic growth, which makes their exploitation attractive to both governments and industries. For example, tar sand mining in Canada’s Alberta Province has created 138,000 jobs, attracted $24.6 billion worth of capital investment and, many would argue, represent a tremendous source of secure, accessible, and affordable energy to help strengthen global energy security. Fracking for shale gas in the USA now accounts for 80% of domestic production and has dropped prices for consumers. Aside from these obvious economic benefits, it has made the USA much more energy secure by reducing dependency on foreign fossil fuel sources which are prone to disruption due to international relations and choke points along energy pathways. Domestic energy security seems to be an increasingly attractive prospect due to uncertain international relationships with energy giants such as Russia. The lure of economic gain and energy security will continue to drive investment and extraction despite environmental concerns.

Secondly, global energy demand continues to rise, driven by population growth, industrialisation, and urbanisation, particularly in Asia. Meeting this demand solely through conventional fossil fuels may become increasingly challenging, leading to increased reliance on unconventional sources to bridge the gap between supply and demand. Demand for fossil fuels remains high across the world despite efforts to decarbonise economies. Like the tar sands in Canada, the exploitation of deep-sea oil brings much needed FDI into the Brazilian economy, but also delays peak oil. Additionally, as resources of conventional sources of fossil fuels dwindle, and technology improves, it becomes more cost beneficial to drill for oil in deep oceans.

However, there are counterarguments against the inevitability of exploiting unconventional fossil fuels such as environmental concerns. These include habitat destruction on a local scale, water pollution, and greenhouse gas emissions. For example, tar sands mines use 2.4 barrels of freshwater for every barrel of tar sands produced. Companies get the water from the Athabasca River—one of North America’s longest free-flowing rivers—and nearly all of it ends up too contaminated to return. Additionally, the mines destroy boreal forest, a huge carbon store, destroy wetland, and are putting millions of birds, caribou, bears, and wolves at risk. In the fracking process, water quality is a primary concern because the hydraulic fracturing fluids used to fracture rock formations have chemicals that could harm human health and the environment, especially if they enter drinking water supplies. Increasing awareness of climate change and environmental degradation may lead to greater opposition to the exploitation of unconventional sources. Public opposition to the environmental and social impacts of unconventional fossil fuel extraction can lead to protests, legal challenges, and grassroots movements that pressure governments and companies to halt or limit their exploitation.

In conclusion, while there are economic, technological, and political factors that may drive the exploitation of unconventional fossil fuels, it is not inevitable. Environmental concerns, the rise of renewable energy alternatives, regulatory shifts, and social opposition all pose significant challenges to the continued expansion of unconventional fossil fuel extraction. The future balance between fossil fuels and cleaner energy sources will depend on a complex interplay of these factors and the choices made by governments, industries, and society as a whole.

AO1 = 5 / AO2 = 15

Level	Marks	Description
	0	No rewardable material.
1	1–5	Demonstrates isolated elements of geographical knowledge and understanding, some of which may be inaccurate or irrelevant. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical ideas, making limited and rarely logical connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce an interpretation with limited coherence and support from evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce an unsupported or generic conclusion, drawn from an argument that is unbalanced or lacks coherence. (AO2)
2	6–10	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is occasionally relevant and may include some inaccuracies. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas with limited but logical connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical ideas in order to produce a partial interpretation that is supported by some evidence but has limited coherence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to come to a conclusion, partially supported by an unbalanced argument with limited coherence. (AO2)
3	11–15	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is mostly relevant and accurate. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to find some logical and relevant connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical ideas in order to produce a partial but coherent interpretation that is supported by some evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to come to a conclusion, largely supported by an argument that may be unbalanced or partially coherent. (AO2)
4	16–20	Demonstrates accurate and relevant geographical knowledge and understanding throughout. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to find fully logical and relevant connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce a full and coherent interpretation that is supported by evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to come to a rational, substantiated conclusion, fully supported by a balanced argument that is drawn together coherently. (AO2)

Relevant content may include:

AO1

Fossil fuel use is still the norm for the global economy.
80% of global primary energy consumption is fossil fuels
Knowledge of different renewable energy source and their current contribution to the energy mix.
Knowledge of recyclable energy and radical technologies.

AO2

Could help decouple fossil fuels from economic growth if efficiency improves.
Renewable energy is likely to be an important component of the future energy mix as it has a low carbon footprint and the technology is always improving.
Each renewable resource has advantages and disadvantages. However, as time progresses, the disadvantages will decrease as the technologies are improved.
If investment continues then there are endless possibilities (e.g. Swedish motorway which charges electric vehicles as they are driven on it).
In some countries (e.g. Norway), renewables already contribute 72% of the total energy mix due to investment and the country making use of topography and climate to harness HEP.
In the UK, wind energy contributes around 27% of electricity demand, which will continue to rise as more wind farms are built.
Government policies affect consumer habits. For example, by 2035 in the UK, there will be a large shift to electric vehicles due to policy change.
Biofuels may be used more in the future. They are carbon neutral in some ways, as CO₂ taken in by a plant during photosynthesis will then be released during combustion. However, countries may be reluctant as food security may be threatened.
The world is still hooked on fossil fuels (80% of primary sources) and so transition to renewables will be costly and require investment.
Local resistance (NIMBYism) to renewables is significant and they can take up large areas of land.
Nuclear energy may be the most realistic option as one power station can produce up to 7% of the energy demand. However, there are disadvantages to this.
Radical technologies could also reduce reliance on fossil fuels (e.g. hydrogen cells and electric vehicles) although manufacture and processing may still require use of them.

AO1 = 5 / AO2 = 15

Level	Marks	Description
	0	No rewardable material.
1	1–5	Demonstrates isolated elements of geographical knowledge and understanding, some of which may be inaccurate or irrelevant. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical ideas, making limited and rarely logical connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce an interpretation with limited coherence and support from evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce an unsupported or generic conclusion, drawn from an argument that is unbalanced or lacks coherence. (AO2)
2	6–10	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is occasionally relevant and may include some inaccuracies. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas with limited but logical connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical ideas in order to produce a partial interpretation that is supported by some evidence but has limited coherence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to come to a conclusion, partially supported by an unbalanced argument with limited coherence. (AO2)
3	11–15	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is mostly relevant and accurate. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to find some logical and relevant connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical ideas in order to produce a partial but coherent interpretation that is supported by some evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to come to a conclusion, largely supported by an argument that may be unbalanced or partially coherent. (AO2)
4	16–20	Demonstrates accurate and relevant geographical knowledge and understanding throughout. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to find fully logical and relevant connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce a full and coherent interpretation that is supported by evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to come to a rational, substantiated conclusion, fully supported by a balanced argument that is drawn together coherently. (AO2)

Relevant content may include:

AO1

Knowledge and understanding of different mitigation strategies (carbon taxation, energy efficiency, afforestation, renewable switching, and carbon capture and storage)
Knowledge about different scales of these strategies—national and global (Paris Agreement).
Knowledge of evidence, which is likely to be from a range of places and named schemes.
Knowledge of the difference between adaptation and mitigation as approaches to deal with future climate change.

AO2

Positive and negatives of different mitigation strategies and the extent to which they can reduce future planetary warming. For example:

Carbon strategies—these are useful as a deterrent and to help governments decouple from fossil fuel use. However, if a tax is passed onto consumers, governments will lose popularity and votes. Governments may just choose to pay the tax as this is less costly than the decoupling process.
Energy efficiency—an effective way of reducing energy use per capita. The UK’s energy use per capita is the same now as it was in 1970s even though the standard of living is higher. This is due to efficiency of use. Germany is a world leader, with policies to reduce energy consumption in residential and commercial buildings by 25%.
Afforestation—the most straightforward of all the mitigation strategies and commonly used to offset emissions of CO₂. Definitely debatable about the extent to which trees alone can absorb all the GHG released from fossil fuel combustion.
Renewable switching—includes strategies such as getting electricity from renewable sources but also electric cars. Sweden is leading the world with this, leading to low carbon per capita even though its consumption per capita is high, with most electricity from nuclear and hydroelectric power stations. The UK is investing in nuclear by constructing Hinkley Point C, which will provide 7% of electric demand. However, renewables provide intermittent electricity, while fossil fuels provide the continuous power essential for current infrastructure.
Carbon capture and storage—there is currently only one commercial carbon capture coal-fired power station in Canada, so there are questions about cost effectiveness and willingness of governments to invest in this technology.

Evaluation of global agreements such as the Paris Agreement to help mitigate climate change.

While it is aiming to limit future global warming to 1.5 degree Celsius above preindustrial levels and 195 countries have adopted this legally binding agreement, there are questions about how far it will help as countries look at national interests before global ones.
Ratification into national laws is essential and countries are held to account for progress.
Support needs to be given to help developing countries adapt and reduce emissions.
An overall conclusion of which strategies are the most likely to reduce global warming.
While each one may help reduce future global warming, it is unclear how significant this will be.
There is a lot of uncertainty about how much future global warming will rise due to human and physical factors.

Chapter 9

All exemplar answers given are likely to be in the top mark band.

Questions 1–9 are point-marked.

AO1 = 4
Award 1 mark for one way that geo-strategic location theory links territory to political power, with up to a further 3 marks for an explanation, to a maximum of 4 marks.

Relevant content may include:
- Mackinder’s geo-strategic location theory suggested that continental Eurasia was politically important, as whoever controls this territory would become a global superpower.
- This territory is politically important because it contains large amounts of the world’s resources.
- Key trade routes and transportation networks.
- Related to Mackinder’s theory is China’s Belt and Road Initiative (BRI), a project that develops modern infrastructure to promote international trade. It consists of the ‘belt’ (overland transport routes such as roads, rail, airports and energy infrastructure) and the ‘road’ (maritime shipping routes and ports).
- Through the BRI, China exerts ‘soft’ rather than ‘hard power’ by offering support and other assistance to partnering countries.
- The BRI allows goods to be traded and aid, political support and other assistance to be provided to partnering countries.
- Some argue that the reliance of partner countries on finance from China to develop projects leaves them open to dependency, obligation and debt to China.
- BRI projects have given China economic and political advantages. Partner countries also benefit but some may experience problems.
Example answer: Mackinder suggested that continental Eurasia (Heartland) was politically important, as whoever controls this territory would become a global superpower. One reason that this territory is politically important is because it contains large amounts of the world’s resources, including natural resources, trade routes and transportation (1). China’s Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) is developing modern infrastructure to develop international trade, which allows China to exert ‘soft’ rather than ‘hard’ power (1). BRI projects have given China economic and political advantages (1). Partner countries may also benefit, but some argue that these countries may be left open to dependency, obligation and debt to China (1).
AO1 = 4
Award 1 mark for one reason why direct colonial control helped to maintain power during the imperial era, with up to a further 3 marks for an explanation, to a maximum of 4 marks.

Relevant content may include:
- Imperial powers used military force to maintain their power within their colonies. The military could be used to suppress local resistance or uprisings, as well as acting as a deterrent to discourage local people from challenging the imperial power. The military could maintain a more stable political environment to exploit resources and to undertake economic activities.
- Imperial powers could enforce their own laws, rules, language, and institutions to enforce their power and suppress local customs and practices.
- Imperial powers controlled access and exploitation of resources, gaining profit from their use and their export, and thus increasing the imperial power’s economic strength.
- Imperial powers used local, cheaper, and sometimes forced, labour to exploit resources, reducing the economic income of local people.
- Imperial powers built infrastructure such as roads, rail, ports, and telecommunications, which helped maintain control across the territory.
- Imperial powers exploited ethnic and religious differences within the local population to divide the population and weaken unified resistance against their power.
Example answer: Imperial powers used military force to maintain their power within their colonies (1). The military could be used to suppress local resistance or uprisings (1), as well as acting as a deterrent to discourage local people from challenging the imperial power (1). The military could maintain a more stable political environment to exploit resources and to undertake economic activities (1).
AO3 = 4
Award 1 mark for each correct answer.

Weighted rank: China 2; India 2.5

Overall score: Brazil 15.5; South Africa 23.5
AO1 = 4
Award 1 mark for one way in which powerful nations exert cultural influence, with up to a further 3 marks for an explanation, to a maximum of 4 marks.

Relevant content may include:
- TNCs based in powerful nations influence cultures around the world. As many TNCs are based in the USA this often results in ‘westernisation’ of culture.
- Developments in technology have contributed to the globalisation of ideas and cultures and the culture and ideas from powerful nations spread globally.
- Powerful nations often produce films, television, music, and other forms of culture, which are distributed around the world and influence global culture.
- Food from different countries is available around the world and the food from powerful nations is available globally (often through TNCs) influencing local food habits and culture.
AO1 = 4
Award 1 mark for one reason why some countries choose to join military alliances, with up to a further 3 marks for an explanation, to a maximum of 4 marks.

Relevant content may include:
- Some countries choose to join military alliances to improve their own national security. They enhance their own protection by working with other countries that have similar interests or concerns. This acts as a deterrent to other nations with opposing views or goals. An attack on one member of the alliance is seen as an attack on all (e.g. NATO), increasing one country’s protection through a collective response.
- Joining a military alliance enables a country to share intelligence and surveillance, so they can respond to threats more effectively.
- Countries within military alliances may also share military equipment and encourage military personnel to work together, both in training and in conflict zones (e.g. joint military exercises). This allows them to contribute towards their common military goals more effectively and at a lower cost than acting alone.
- Joining a military alliance enables countries to cooperate diplomatically on areas of common interest, increasing a country’s influence on the global stage.
- Being a member of a military alliance may show a country’s commitment to the shared values and behaviours of member states (e.g. democracy).
AO1 = 4
Award 1 mark for one reason why superpower resource demands can cause environmental degradation, with up to a further 3 marks for an explanation, to a maximum of 4 marks.

Relevant content may include:
- Superpowers have a high demand for natural resources to supply their populations and economies. This demand for raw materials, energy, and food sources can lead to high levels of extraction and intensification of land use. Land can be degraded (e.g. through soil erosion, habitat loss) and contaminated through oil spills during extraction (e.g. mining), and in the course of agricultural production (e.g. deforestation).
- Industrial activity within superpowers can cause a range of atmospheric pollutants such as greenhouse and toxic gases, and particulate matter, causing a reduction in local air quality and contributing towards climate change.
- A decline in the water availability (scarcity) and increase in water pollution through agricultural and industrial activities reduces environmental quality. Increases in population size and wealth can also raise demand for water.
- The need for increased energy causes environmental degradation, through the burning of fossil fuels. This contributes to global warming, sea level rise, and extreme weather events, which can have adverse impacts on the environment.
- Resource demands may also lead to conflict (e.g. war), which negatively affects the natural environment (e.g. the planting of minefields).
AO1 = 4
Award 1 mark for one reason why the global system of intellectual property rights can be threatened, with up to a further 3 marks for an explanation, to a maximum of 4 marks.

Relevant content may include:
- The global system of intellectual property rights can be threatened through counterfeiting. Fake products from industries such as pharmaceuticals, electronics, and luxury brands can flood the market, reducing the profits of those owning the intellectual property rights. It also puts the customer at risk as they may buy an unsafe product. Income from counterfeiting is illegal and so will not be declared, decreasing its tax revenue.
- The internet has threatened the global system of intellectual property rights. Cyberspace makes it easier to share files and information, and to pirate material digitally, making it difficult to enforce patents and copyright.
- The intellectual property rights system can increase the cost of products (e.g. high licensing fees and TNC monopolies on patents), creating barriers to access for essential goods and services, particularly for those in poorer economies (e.g. vaccines). Public opinion may challenge the system if it is seen to increase global inequality and reduce the ability to achieve development goals.
AO1 = 4
Award 1 mark for one reason why tensions in the Middle East present an ongoing challenge to superpowers, with up to a further 3 marks for an explanation, to a maximum of 4 marks.

Relevant content may include:
- Superpowers rely on energy to meet the demands of the economy and their populations. The Middle East is home to many of the world’s important oil producing countries, including Saudi Arabia, Iraq, UAE, Iran, and Kuwait. Conflicts in the region pose a threat to global energy markets. Superpowers that are dependent on oil imports have a geopolitical interest in the region. Tensions in the region could disrupt oil flows and increase prices, negatively affecting superpowers.
- The Middle East is an area of key geo-strategic interest. Located between Europe, Eastern Asia, and North Africa, superpowers compete for influence in the region (e.g. through military bases and shipping routes). Tensions within the region can destabilise access to these interests.
- Armed conflicts, civil wars, and terrorism can cause a threat to regional and international security, both in the region itself and within states in other areas of the world.
- Conflicts and climate change can lead to humanitarian crisis as refugees are displaced from one region to another. Superpowers may be required to provide aid and humanitarian assistance, and to negotiate or mediate in the solution process.
- There are concerns that some states within the region are suspected of increasing their nuclear program, including their nuclear weapon capability. This affects superpowers’ efforts to maintain global stability.
- The Middle East is a complex, dynamic political region. Superpowers may form alliances to increase their geopolitical influence, but these may be strained by changes in power between different groups within the region.
AO1 = 4
Award 1 mark for one reason why space exploration is questioned in some existing superpowers, with up to a further 3 marks for an explanation, to a maximum of 4 marks.

Relevant content may include:
- Space exploration is questioned in some existing superpowers because of its cost. Funding space projects is extremely expensive. Some within superpowers argue that the money should be redirected to projects that benefit their populations socially, such as health and social services, education, or infrastructure. Benefits from these for populations may be seen in less time than those gained through space exploration.
- Space exploration brings risks (e.g. accidents). Decision-makers and the public may question the justification of these risks.
- Increased space activity brings increased debris (space junk), which is difficult to dispose of and poses danger to other orbiting satellites, as well as the International Space Station. Further landings on the Moon and other planets could increase the number and type of objects left in space.
- Environmental concerns on Earth (e.g. environmental impact around launch sites and end-of-life satellites ditching in the ocean).
- Space exploration is entering a new ‘space race’. Tensions could arise between those superpowers, and other states, competing for space dominance or disputing access to space resources.
Questions 10–18 are level-marked.

AO1 = 3 / AO2 = 9

Level	Marks	Description
	0	No rewardable material.
1	1–4	Demonstrates isolated elements of geographical knowledge and understanding, some of which may be inaccurate or irrelevant. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas, making limited logical connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce an interpretation with limited relevance and/or support. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to make unsupported or generic judgements about the significance of few factors, leading to an argument that is unbalanced or lacks coherence. (AO2)
2	5–8	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is mostly relevant and may include some inaccuracies. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas logically, making some relevant connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce a partial but coherent interpretation that is mostly relevant and supported by evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to make judgements about the significance of some factors, to produce an argument that may be unbalanced or partially coherent. (AO2)
3	9–12	Demonstrates accurate and relevant geographical knowledge and understanding throughout. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas logically, making relevant connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce a full and coherent interpretation that is relevant and supported by evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to make supported judgements about the significance of factors throughout the response, leading to a balanced and coherent argument. (AO2)

Relevant content may include:

AO1

Soft power, including the role of trade, TNCs, aid, media, and culture, plays an important role in developing superpower status.
Hard power, such as military force and intervention, has also played an important role in achieving and maintaining superpower status.
The role of soft and hard power in maintaining the status of superpowers can vary between nations and change overtime.

AO2

Trade links can increase a country’s superpower status.
Superpowers may have favourable terms of trade and are able to export higher-value products, while importing lower-value goods.
China had a trade surplus of $857 billion in 2022, giving them more economic power.
TNCs are also important for maintaining soft power status as they operate in more than one country, bringing in FDI. This can lead to LICs being dependent on HICs to stimulate investment and employment.
Governments of LICs may change laws and tax regulations to bring in investment from TNCs.
TNCs may also bring in working practices and methods of organisation to increase their efficiency.
TNCs may have a large share of the global market for the products they produce as well as powerful brands, increasing their global influence.
Many of the largest TNCs are American, helping to maintain the USA’s position as a superpower.
Superpowers can also give aid, which increases the dependency of other nations on them.
Superpowers may also have more influence in global decision-making (e.g. permanent positions on the UN Security Council), enhancing their global power and status.
Superpowers may also be prominent members of trade blocs and alliances, which also helps to maintain their superpower status.
Many influential technology companies are American (e.g. Microsoft and Apple) and the use of their products is global.
Advances in the internet and smartphones increase the spread of these companies’ products, which contributes to the USA’s superpower status. They can help other countries to assimilate American ideas and beliefs.
Culturally, the USA exports music, films, television, and fashion. This helps to export and maintain the influence of American/western ideas and values. US film companies like the Big Five studios (Universal, Paramount, Warner Bros, Disney, and Sony) produce many films each year which are distributed to international markets.
Streaming services such as Netflix distribute American series as part of their global output and US music artists (e.g. Taylor Swift) generate global income from music sales and tour tickets.

Possible lines of assessment might be:

Some argue that soft power has played a very important role in maintaining superpower status.
While hard power, such as military force and intervention, has played an important role in achieving superpower status, soft power, including the role of trade, TNCs, aid, media, and culture, has enabled superpowers, particularly the USA to continue to exert power and influence over other countries.
It can be argued that soft power is very important for maintaining the status of superpowers, although it may need more time to take effect than hard power activities such as military interventions.

Example answer: Some argue that soft power has played a very important role in maintaining superpower status. While hard power, such as military force and intervention, has played an important role in achieving superpower status, the role of trade, TNCs, aid, media, and culture has enabled superpowers, particularly the USA, to continue to exert power and influence over other countries.

Trade links can increase a country’s superpower status. Superpowers may have favourable terms of trade and are able to export higher-value products, while importing lower-value goods. China had a trade surplus of $857 billion in 2022, giving them more economic power. TNCs are also important for maintaining soft power status as they operate in more than one country, bringing in FDI. This can lead to LICs being dependent on HICs to stimulate investment and employment. Governments of LICs may change laws and tax regulations to bring in investment from TNCs. TNCs may also bring in working practices and methods of organisation to increase their efficiency. They may have a large share of the global market for the products they produce as well as powerful brands, increasing their global influence. Many of the largest TNCs are American, helping to maintain the USA’s position as a superpower. Superpowers can also give aid, which increases the dependency of other nations on them.

Superpowers may also have more influence in global decision-making—for example, permanent positions on the UN Security Council—enhancing their global power and status. They may also be prominent members of trade blocs and alliances, which also helps to maintain their superpower status.

Also, many influential technology companies are American, such as Microsoft and Apple, and the use of their products is global. Advances in the internet and smartphones increase the spread of these companies’ products, which contributes to the USA’s superpower status. They can help other countries to assimilate American ideas and beliefs.

In terms of culture, the USA exports music, films, television, and fashion. This helps to export and maintain the influence of American/western ideas and values. US film companies like the Big Five studios (Universal, Paramount, Warner Bros, Disney, and Sony) produce many films each year, which are distributed to international markets. Streaming services such as Netflix distribute American series as part of their global output and US music artists (e.g. Taylor Swift) generate global income from music sales and tour tickets.

It can be argued that soft power is very important for maintaining the status of superpowers, although it may need more time to take effect than hard power activities such as military interventions.

The USA (through westernisation) has used soft power to maintain its superpower status, although its military capability shows that hard power is still important. China, as a developing superpower, uses trade (soft power) to further its influence but it also is developing its military power (hard power), which may help to maintain its future superpower status.

AO1 = 3 / AO2 = 9

Level	Marks	Description
	0	No rewardable material.
1	1–4	Demonstrates isolated elements of geographical knowledge and understanding, some of which may be inaccurate or irrelevant. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas, making limited logical connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce an interpretation with limited relevance and/or support. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to make unsupported or generic judgements about the significance of few factors, leading to an argument that is unbalanced or lacks coherence. (AO2)
2	5–8	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is mostly relevant and may include some inaccuracies. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas logically, making some relevant connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce a partial but coherent interpretation that is mostly relevant and supported by evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to make judgements about the significance of some factors, to produce an argument that may be unbalanced or partially coherent. (AO2)
3	9–12	Demonstrates accurate and relevant geographical knowledge and understanding throughout. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas logically, making relevant connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce a full and coherent interpretation that is relevant and supported by evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to make supported judgements about the significance of factors throughout the response, leading to a balanced and coherent argument. (AO2)

Relevant content may include:

AO1

There are different viewpoints as to whether unipolar, bipolar, or multipolar patterns of power offer more geopolitical stability and pose less risks.
Unipolar (one dominant nation), bipolar (two nations that share dominance), and multipolar (many nations that share global influence and may have dominance in particular regions) models have varying strengths and weaknesses.

AO2

Unipolar world: a single power dominates, giving stability by acting as a global leader.
They can keep order and help to prevent major conflicts.
The dominant power may have large economic resources so are able to spend money on their military to maintain their superpower status.
Other countries are unlikely to challenge this status and they avoid wars.
The dominant power may overextend themselves or become too confident.
They may try or spread ideas or policies which may cause tensions with other countries, leading to opposition and conflict.
Bipolar world: the two nations have relatively equal power, and this creates stability.
In the Cold War period, both the USA and the USSR recognised the power and potential of the other, and there was a joint fear of mutual attack.
This acted as a deterrent for direct conflict.
However, critics argue that conflicts can still take place in a bipolar war through proxy conflicts, often in other regions of the world. Instability can occur if there is a breakdown in diplomacy between the two powers.
Multipolar world: at least two powers have superpower status, distributing the power between countries and/or regions.
This may balance power more evenly.
There may be changing alliances between countries, preventing conflicts as not one power dominates.
However, some argue that multipolar systems may be more unpredictable because of these shifts in alliances, leading to more complex relationships which could increase conflicts.

Possible lines of assessment might be:

Different positions of power bring their own strengths and limitations in terms of geopolitical stability and risk.
The influence of international institutions as well as external factors such as pandemics and the impacts of climate change, may also influence the balance of power between countries.

AO1 = 3 / AO2 = 9

Level	Marks	Description
	0	No rewardable material.
1	1–4	Demonstrates isolated elements of geographical knowledge and understanding, some of which may be inaccurate or irrelevant. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas, making limited logical connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce an interpretation with limited relevance and/or support. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to make unsupported or generic judgements about the significance of few factors, leading to an argument that is unbalanced or lacks coherence. (AO2)

Level	Marks	Description
2	5–8	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is mostly relevant and may include some inaccuracies. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas logically, making some relevant connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce a partial but coherent interpretation that is mostly relevant and supported by evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to make judgements about the significance of some factors, to produce an argument that may be unbalanced or partially coherent. (AO2)
3	9–12	Demonstrates accurate and relevant geographical knowledge and understanding throughout. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas logically, making relevant connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce a full and coherent interpretation that is relevant and supported by evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to make supported judgements about the significance of factors throughout the response, leading to a balanced and coherent argument. (AO2)

Relevant content may include:

AO1

Different development theories may be useful when explaining the change of a country’s power over time, but they also have limitations.
Rostow’s model of economic growth shows how a country modernises over time.
Dependency theory examines spatial inequality through differences between core (developed) and periphery (developing) countries.
Wallerstein’s World Systems theory model does include semi-peripheral regions to the dependency model.

AO2

The Rostow model shows five distinct stages of economic growth, linking development to the progression of economic activity from primary through services.
It integrates the importance of investment, trade, infrastructure, and technology to the development process.
It is clear and straightforward to understand, and can be applied to different countries.
It was developed with a focus on the economic growth of developed countries, so developing countries may not go through the stages in this linear way.
The development process may be oversimplified and does not include other factors linked to progress, such as environmental sustainability and improvements in human rights.
The Rostow model does not consider external factors that influence economic growth, such as availability of natural resources, globalisation, and trade policies.
National governments may also have particular priorities, which may stimulate economic growth by focusing on certain sectors.
Dependency theory may be more useful for explaining past patterns of power, especially during the imperial era.
Critics argue that countries that have industrialised in the late twentieth and early twenty-first century (e.g. China and South Korea) do not easily fit into this model as it is oversimplified.
The view the model offers is polarised, making it difficult for countries to move from the periphery to the core.
Wallerstein’s World systems theory model includes NICs and suggests that countries can transition between the core, semi-periphery and periphery over time.
Some argue that, although it shows the spatial change of power over time, it oversimplifies the relationship between countries.
By focusing on economic factors, it ignores environmental, social, and political factors, which also affect changes in patterns of power.

Possible lines of assessment might be:

Development theories may offer some explanation of changing patterns of power, but they can be oversimplified.
Examination of the strengths and limitations of Rostow, Dependency Theory, and Wallerstein in explaining different patterns of power.
Rostow, Dependency Theory, and Wallerstein’s model developed during the Cold War era, and factors such as technological advances may need to be considered when explaining changes in more current patterns of power.
By focusing on economic factors, they can also ignore other factors (e.g. social, environmental, and political), which influence a country’s global status.

AO1 = 3 / AO2 = 9

Level	Marks	Description
	0	No rewardable material.
1	1–4	Demonstrates isolated elements of geographical knowledge and understanding, some of which may be inaccurate or irrelevant. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas, making limited logical connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce an interpretation with limited relevance and/or support. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to make unsupported or generic judgements about the significance of few factors, leading to an argument that is unbalanced or lacks coherence. (AO2)

Level	Marks	Description
2	5–8	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is mostly relevant and may include some inaccuracies. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas logically, making some relevant connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce a partial but coherent interpretation that is mostly relevant and supported by evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to make judgements about the significance of some factors, to produce an argument that may be unbalanced or partially coherent. (AO2)
3	9–12	Demonstrates accurate and relevant geographical knowledge and understanding throughout. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas logically, making relevant connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce a full and coherent interpretation that is relevant and supported by evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to make supported judgements about the significance of factors throughout the response, leading to a balanced and coherent argument. (AO2)

Relevant content may include:

AO1

Superpowers may influence IGOs in a number of ways, in particular, through decision-making and financially.
Other factors may influence IGOS such as the role of other member states and those within trade blocs and other alliances, influence from other organisations such as NGOs, ability to deal with global challenges such as poverty and climate change, and public opinion.

AO2

Superpowers can influence decision-making in IGOs.
This allows them to help make policies and rules that impact global systems, including the economy.
They may push for trade agreements, monetary policies, and development projects that support their interests.
Superpowers also make financial contributions to IGOs.
They may influence allocations of funds so that projects are supported in regions that may link with their interests.
Superpowers may provide financial aid in times of humanitarian or financial crisis through IGOs.
Through membership of the World Trade Organization, superpowers advocate free trade and capitalism.
They will be involved in trade agreements and negotiations. They may dispute agreements that are not aligned to their interests.
Superpowers give money to the International Monetary Fund via a quota system.
They help to give short to mid-term financial assistance to countries via loans, helping to maintain economic stability.
Superpowers fund contributions to the World Bank, contributing towards long-term development projects (e.g. health, education, and infrastructure).
This can improve economic development, particularly for LICs.
Superpowers also influence the global economy through the World Economic Forum, where leaders from public and private organisations discuss solutions to key global issues.
Superpowers may also be members of trade blocs (e.g. the USA and NAFTA), which can influence the type and volume of products sold through trade agreements and the reduction of barriers to trade.

Possible lines of assessment might be:

Members of key IGOs that influence the global economy including the WTO, IMF, and World Bank.
Have key decision-making powers or can influence policies within these organisations (e.g. the WTO).
Superpowers are wealthy countries, so make key financial contributions.
Membership of trade blocs also gives them influence in the global economy.
Member states of other alliances (e.g. military: NATO) cooperate to achieve the goals of IGOs.
NGOs can also play an important role influencing IGOs by highlighting issues that need to be tackled and providing action in addition to that of IGOs.
IGOs own ability to deal with global challenges such as poverty and climate change may determine the direction of their policies.
Public opinion may influence the actions of IGOs (e.g. the UN), particularly in times of crisis.

AO1 = 3 / AO2 = 9

Level	Marks	Description
	0	No rewardable material.
1	1–4	Demonstrates isolated elements of geographical knowledge and understanding, some of which may be inaccurate or irrelevant. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas, making limited logical connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce an interpretation with limited relevance and/or support. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to make unsupported or generic judgements about the significance of few factors, leading to an argument that is unbalanced or lacks coherence. (AO2)
2	5–8	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is mostly relevant and may include some inaccuracies. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas logically, making some relevant connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce a partial but coherent interpretation that is mostly relevant and supported by evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to make judgements about the significance of some factors, to produce an argument that may be unbalanced or partially coherent. (AO2)

Level	Marks	Description
3	9–12	Demonstrates accurate and relevant geographical knowledge and understanding throughout. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas logically, making relevant connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce a full and coherent interpretation that is relevant and supported by evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to make supported judgements about the significance of factors throughout the response, leading to a balanced and coherent argument. (AO2)

Relevant content may include:

AO1

The United Nations (UN), established in 1945, is the world’s most important IGO.
The UN is an important global player as its members cooperate on numerous global challenges such as peace, security, human rights, aid, and sustainable development.
The UN’s success has been limited by how it makes decisions, its limitations in enforcing its decisions, and the time it takes for them to be implemented.

AO2

The UN Security Council is the main body responsible for maintaining international peace and security.
UN member states have to follow decisions made by the Council.
Five permanent members on the UN Security Council (USA, UK, Russia, France, and China) have the power to veto resolutions.
Critics argue that this system gives more influence to the world’s most powerful nations and it can be difficult to reach agreements on issues, delaying its actions and weakening its effectiveness.
The International Court of Justice is the main legal body of the UN. Its role is to use international law to settle legal disputes on behalf of countries and to offer legal advice to other UN bodies.
It provides a framework for addressing disputes and managing international relations, helping geopolitical stability.
Critics argue that it takes a long time for issues to be resolved and lacks the ability to enforce its decisions.
The UN has the capacity to be directly involved in regions that are politically unstable through its Peacekeeping Missions.
These help countries work towards long-term peace by providing a neutral force, therefore improving geopolitical stability.
Critics argue that UN Peacekeeping forces have brought other problems to some areas they are protecting.
The UN has been involved in tackling climate change through COPs, where member states review progress on climate issues.
This helps geopolitical stability in the long-term through agreements to reduce the rise in global temperatures. This would lessen the impact of climate change, a threat to global stability.
While it provides a global forum for countries to discuss, some argue that COPs are slow, complex, and lack effectiveness on some issues.

Possible lines of assessment might be:

The UN plays an important role in maintaining geopolitical stability, although some argue that certain countries within it have more influence (UN Security Council).
Decision-making can be slow.
It lacks the ability to enforce its rulings.

AO1 = 3 / AO2 = 9

Level	Marks	Description
	0	No rewardable material.
1	1–4	Demonstrates isolated elements of geographical knowledge and understanding, some of which may be inaccurate or irrelevant. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas, making limited logical connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce an interpretation with limited relevance and/or support. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to make unsupported or generic judgements about the significance of few factors, leading to an argument that is unbalanced or lacks coherence. (AO2)
2	5–8	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is mostly relevant and may include some inaccuracies. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas logically, making some relevant connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce a partial but coherent interpretation that is mostly relevant and supported by evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to make judgements about the significance of some factors, to produce an argument that may be unbalanced or partially coherent. (AO2)
3	9–12	Demonstrates accurate and relevant geographical knowledge and understanding throughout. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas logically, making relevant connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce a full and coherent interpretation that is relevant and supported by evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to make supported judgements about the significance of factors throughout the response, leading to a balanced and coherent argument. (AO2)

Relevant content may include:

AO1

The future growth in middle-class consumption in emerging superpowers raises a range of environmental impacts.
By 2030, it is predicted that over 50% of the world’s population will be middle class (over 4.2 billion people).
The middle classes have over two thirds of the world’s spending power, putting pressure on the resources to produce the goods and services that they will need.
Populations in HICs will also continue to need resources to maintain the standard of living they have been used to.

AO2

There will be an increased need for energy supplies.
Oil will be in demand to fuel petrol-based vehicles in the short- to medium-term, until the infrastructure and affordability of electric vehicles improves.
This could increase pollution levels (e.g. oil spills, and carbon and particle emissions from combustion).
This reduces environmental quality and contributes to climate change.
Deforestation could be another consequence of growing numbers of middle-class populations.
Higher numbers of people will need more food, including staple grains such as rice, maize, and wheat. Diets may change, increasing the demand for meat.
As a result, natural habitats, including tropical rainforests, will be threatened to make way for agricultural land and urban development.
Loss of forests reduces biodiversity and carbon sequestration potential.
Demand for food will also affect oceans if unsustainable fishing practices lead to a decline in stocks.
As consumption increases, the amount of waste also rises. There are environmental impacts with disposing of this waste.
There is a need to find more space for landfill sites.
Finite resources such as rare earth minerals will be extracted, causing land degradation.
Fresh water sources will be put under pressure as agriculture, households, and industry compete for limited supplies.
Increased demand may encourage companies to seek alternative solutions or to invest in technology to minimise impacts on the environment.

Possible lines of assessment might be:

Negative impacts on the environment of future middle-class growth include energy, pollution, habitat loss, deforestation, waste, finite resources, and fresh water.
Positive impacts on the environment of future middle-class growth include innovation and awareness on the environment of a growth in middle class-led consumption.
Technological solutions are developing (e.g. increase in renewable energy), but more will need to be found and implemented to reduce the threats to the environment.
Pressures from rising population in other regions of the world, particularly in parts of Africa.

AO1 = 3 / AO2 = 9

Level	Marks	Description
	0	No rewardable material.
1	1–4	Demonstrates isolated elements of geographical knowledge and understanding, some of which may be inaccurate or irrelevant. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas, making limited logical connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce an interpretation with limited relevance and/or support. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to make unsupported or generic judgements about the significance of few factors, leading to an argument that is unbalanced or lacks coherence. (AO2)
2	5–8	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is mostly relevant and may include some inaccuracies. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas logically, making some relevant connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce a partial but coherent interpretation that is mostly relevant and supported by evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to make judgements about the significance of some factors, to produce an argument that may be unbalanced or partially coherent. (AO2)
3	9–12	Demonstrates accurate and relevant geographical knowledge and understanding throughout. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas logically, making relevant connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce a full and coherent interpretation that is relevant and supported by evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to make supported judgements about the significance of factors throughout the response, leading to a balanced and coherent argument. (AO2)

Relevant content may include:

AO1

Tensions arise over the acquisition of physical resources such as oil and gas, rare earths, and fish.
These tensions may arise from economic factors as well as political factors.
Countries require resources to meet the demand from populations in their own countries, to provide income from the trade of these resources and to increase their economic status and sometimes their political control in the world.
Tensions arise over claims over, or the right to extract resources from, land or sea areas, particularly those that are disputed or under international jurisdictions.

AO2

Using the Arctic as an example, there are many reasons why tensions occur when countries compete for resources.
Access to the Arctic region is increasing due to climate change and improvements in technology.
While much of the Arctic lies in international waters, there are competing claims for ownership by different countries.
The Arctic has significant oil and gas reserves, and countries with existing interests in the region, as well as those beyond it, may want to exploit these resources to meet demand.
Rare earth metals are also present, so extraction of these would help the development of high-tech industries.
Changing patterns of fishing may occur with increased ocean temperatures.
There may be conflicts over exploiting fisheries as demand for fish as a food source will increase as the global population rises.
Territory is an important physical resource.
There are already contested claims within the Arctic region between some Arctic nations, not only for resources, but for geostrategic reasons.
Tensions can also arise over resources because of gaps in existing frameworks.
Although the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea governs part of the Arctic Ocean, disputes may arise over the application of international laws, leading to tension between countries.

Possible lines of assessment might be:

Economic factors are key as resources are fundamental to economic growth and development, as well as meeting the demands of the population.
Political factors are important as these govern the right to access resources, particularly in areas that are not already defined within countries. Territorial claims and how these are managed are becoming increasingly important, especially when technological advances make exploitation in more extreme environments such as the Arctic more viable.

AO1 = 3 / AO2 = 9

Level	Marks	Description
	0	No rewardable material.
1	1–4	Demonstrates isolated elements of geographical knowledge and understanding, some of which may be inaccurate or irrelevant. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas, making limited logical connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce an interpretation with limited relevance and/or support. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to make unsupported or generic judgements about the significance of few factors, leading to an argument that is unbalanced or lacks coherence. (AO2)

Level	Marks	Description
2	5–8	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is mostly relevant and may include some inaccuracies. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas logically, making some relevant connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce a partial but coherent interpretation that is mostly relevant and supported by evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to make judgements about the significance of some factors, to produce an argument that may be unbalanced or partially coherent. (AO2)
3	9–12	Demonstrates accurate and relevant geographical knowledge and understanding throughout. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas logically, making relevant connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce a full and coherent interpretation that is relevant and supported by evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to make supported judgements about the significance of factors throughout the response, leading to a balanced and coherent argument. (AO2)

Relevant content may include:

AO1

Many opportunities and challenges are created when emerging powers (e.g. China) and the developing world (e.g. parts of Africa) increase their economic ties.
Opportunities can arise for both the emerging power and the developing world.
Challenges can occur for both the emerging power and the developing world.
Opportunities include FDI, infrastructure development, and aid.
Challenges may include neocolonialism, dependency, employment rights, and environmental concerns.

AO2

Opportunities include a rise in FDI. FDI can help Chinese companies to develop their business and increase their profits.
It can also help African countries to increase levels of development through flows of capital, technology, and expertise.
FDI can develop industries which create employment for local people, so income flows to local businesses due to the multiplier effect.
Infrastructure is important for economic development and investment in ports, roads, and railways helps to connect countries to the global market, particularly landlocked countries (e.g. China’s Belt Road Initiative).
Secure ports can also be used for military bases, improving national security.
Emerging economies may also be in position to give aid in the form of grants or loans, which may help communities progress towards SDGs.
Challenges include discontent amongst the local population, leading to protests over projects.
Some argue that countries may experience ‘Sinoisation’, where resources are exploited for Chinese gain, a type of neo-colonialism.
Where loans have been given instead of grants, debt repayment and debt servicing issues may arise.
Projects may be subject to cancellation or delays, causing tensions between the two countries involved.
Development of some industries may lead to issues over employment rights and concerns over health and safety.
Increased economic ties may lead to environmental challenges such as resource exploitation, habitat loss, and increased pollution.
In addition, some argue that increasing economic ties increases dependency, whereas others argue that it reduces dependency.

Possible lines of assessment might be:

Opportunities and challenges exist when emerging powers and the developing world create economic ties.
Some argue that the opportunities for the emerging power in some cases outweigh those for the developing countries.
Challenges may be more significant for developing countries (e.g. economic dependency and environmental challenges).
Important to balance long-term economic interests with sustainable development so that both countries achieve long-term benefits.

AO1 = 3 / AO2 = 9

Level	Marks	Description
	0	No rewardable material.
1	1–4	Demonstrates isolated elements of geographical knowledge and understanding, some of which may be inaccurate or irrelevant. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas, making limited logical connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce an interpretation with limited relevance and/or support. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to make unsupported or generic judgements about the significance of few factors, leading to an argument that is unbalanced or lacks coherence. (AO2)
2	5–8	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is mostly relevant and may include some inaccuracies. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas logically, making some relevant connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce a partial but coherent interpretation that is mostly relevant and supported by evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to make judgements about the significance of some factors, to produce an argument that may be unbalanced or partially coherent. (AO2)

Level	Marks	Description
3	9–12	Demonstrates accurate and relevant geographical knowledge and understanding throughout. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas logically, making relevant connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce a full and coherent interpretation that is relevant and supported by evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to make supported judgements about the significance of factors throughout the response, leading to a balanced and coherent argument. (AO2)

Relevant content may include:

AO1

Power structures, the ability for one or more countries to influence the global political system, are affected by many factors.
Demographic, economic, social, political, and environmental factors have important influence over future power structures in the twenty-first century.
Different factors may have varying influences on the power structure of particular countries, and at different points of time.
While economic factors are highly important, other factors may have varying influences on the power structure of particular countries, and at different points of time.

AO2

Many factors affect future power structures in 2030 and 2050.
By 2050, the UN predicts that the world’s population will be 9.8 billion.
Although overall population growth is slowing down, there will still be competition for the resources available, unless technology can provide alternatives.
The ability to obtain resources for populations will be important to maintain superpower status.
The USA and China will both have ageing populations as life expectancy increases and the proportion of workers declines.
This will cause challenges in the healthcare sector, the labour market, and the need to meet pension costs.
These economic challenges may put superpower status at risk. India, a potential superpower, on the other hand, will experience a demographic dividend.
Their economy will benefit from an increase in the proportion of the working population.
In regional terms, Asia is likely to contribute more than 50% of global GDP and account for 40% of global consumption.
China and India are part of this growth and are likely to economically benefit from increased trade within the region.
The future balance of superpowers may be influenced by existing or new conflicts and terrorist threats.
Recent conflicts in the Ukraine and the Middle East threaten international relationships and therefore global stability.
Technology will be very important for future superpowers.
Developments in computing (e.g. AI and quantum computing), sustainable technology (e.g. renewable energy), and biotechnology will give superpowers an advantage over competing countries.
The way in which the digital environment is governed (e.g. cybersecurity and data privacy) will be crucial in maintaining superpower status.
The ability to cope with environmental challenges will be very important for future superpowers.
They will have to show resilience to lessen and manage impacts from climate change, resource scarcity, pandemics, biodiversity loss, natural disasters, and extreme weather.
The increase in power of organisations outside of governments (e.g. military groups, TNCs) may threaten the influence of superpowers.
Economic factors will also influence achieving and/or maintaining superpower status.
Investment in military personnel and equipment will be essential for future superpowers.
Increased globalisation and changing trade relations (e.g. trade blocs) will influence the economy of superpowers.
Future superpowers may also continue to have influence in IGOs which are linked to global governance (e.g. the UN).

Possible lines of assessment might be:

Many complex factors will influence future power structures.
Some would argue that those affecting economic power are the most important, as a large and growing economy allows superpowers to spend money in key areas that help to maintain their status (e.g. military funding and trade in resources).
Demographics (e.g. population structure and migration) will also be significant factors in future.

Chapter 10

All exemplar answers given are likely to be in the top mark band.

Questions 1–7 are point-marked.

AO1 = 4
Award 1 mark per valid point with additional marks for extension points or examples with detail.

Relevant content may include:
- Through education, children attain knowledge and skills (1). They become productive members of society and work in more highly skilled and highly paid jobs (1).
- Economic growth is boosted through tax payments and wealth generation (1).
- The World Bank estimates that each additional year of education leads to a 5 to 8% increase in individual earnings (1).
- They are more likely to prioritise education for their own children, creating a positive generational cycle (1).
Example answer: Through education, children attain knowledge and skills. They become productive members of society and work in more highly skilled and highly paid jobs. Economic growth is boosted through tax payments and wealth generation. The World Bank estimates that each additional year of education leads to a 5 to 8% increase in individual earnings. As adults, those with higher levels of education are more likely to prioritise education for their own children, creating a positive generational cycle.
AO1 = 4
Award 1 mark per valid point with additional marks for extension points or examples with detail.

Relevant content may include:
- Life expectancy varies between different places within the developed world, as there are areas of relatively higher and lower incomes (1).
- Higher levels of deprivation in a developed country will impact on someone’s ability to buy healthy, nutritious food and live in high-quality housing, both of which will impact on health outcomes (1).
- Most deaths in the developed world are due to non-communicable diseases (1), sometimes caused by lifestyle factors—for example, rates of smoking, alcohol consumption, and overnutrition are higher in some areas of developed countries (1).
- In some developed countries, healthcare may be expensive or there may be a lack of timeliness in receiving treatment (1).
- Some countries provide universal health coverage for their population and invest heavily in services, such as Norway (1).
AO1 = 4
Award 1 mark per valid point with additional marks for extension points or examples with detail.

Relevant content may include:
- Decisions made by governments can promote economic and social development. Countries with higher expenditure on healthcare tend to have higher life expectancies and lower levels of child mortality, leading to higher social development (1).
- Welfare states prioritise spending to improve the economic and social wellbeing of citizens (1), for example through maternity benefits, pensions, and health services (1).
- Norway has one of the highest percentages of social spending out of all OECD countries and scores the highest in the Happy Planet Index (1).
- Some countries have low levels of spending on health and education (1).
- Spending on education in Nigeria is one of the lowest in the world. The literacy rate was 62% in 2018 (1).
AO1 = 4
Award 1 mark per valid point with additional marks for extension points or examples with detail.

Relevant content may include:
- The UDHR is a set of statements, compiled by the UN in 1948, which outlines the rights that all people around the world should be entitled to without discrimination (1).
- It is not legally binding but has inspired international human rights law and treaties (1).
- In 1948, eight countries abstained from voting in favour of the UDHR (1).
- Signing and ratifying the UN’s human rights conventions (legal agreements between countries and the UN) and treaties remains optional to governments (1).
AO1 = 4
Award 1 mark per valid point with additional marks for extension points or examples with detail.

Relevant content may include:
- Civilian deaths—for example, from air strikes or increased fighting on the ground (1).
- Internal displacement due to damaged property (1).
- Disruption to education, loss of infrastructure, property, and belongings (1).
- Instability at the end of military intervention (1).
- For example, after the withdrawal of military personnel from Afghanistan in 2021, the Taliban have taken control of the country (1). Estimates suggest that the war cost the USA $2.3 trillion and cost the lives of 2,448 US soldiers (1).
- Women in Afghanistan have severely restricted freedoms. Girls are banned from secondary school and higher education, banned from working for the UN, and must be accompanied by a male relative if travelling more than 72 km (1).
- 4 million Afghans were internally displaced (1).
AO1 = 4
Award 1 mark per valid point with additional marks for extension points or examples with detail.

Relevant content may include:
- For some governments and IGOs, the introduction of democratic institutions is deemed important and freedom of expression is seen as central to the development of democratic and capitalist societies (1).
- The introduction of democracy, good governance, and political stability (1). For example, the UN provides assistance at elections in around 60 countries a year and peacekeeping missions aim to strengthen democratic institutions (1), due to the UN’s strong belief in the link between democracy, development, and respect for human rights (1).
- Without democracy, there may be high levels of corruption (1), which are a threat to human rights and development as the rule of law can be subverted (1).
- Corrupt governments divert money away from ensuring basic needs are met such as healthcare, education, and housing (1).
- Corrupt governments are less likely to uphold their moral and legal obligations to protect human rights and the judicial system may not respect rights and freedoms (1).
Questions 7–18 are level-marked.

AO1 = 3 / AO2 = 3

Level	Marks	Description
	0	No rewardable material.
1	1–2	Demonstrates isolated or generic elements of geographical knowledge and understanding, some of which may be inaccurate or irrelevant. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding to geographical information inconsistently. Connections/relationships between stimulus material and the question may be irrelevant. (AO2)
2	3–4	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is mostly relevant and may include some inaccuracies. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding to geographical information to find some relevant connections/relationships between stimulus material and the question. (AO2)
3	5–6	Demonstrates accurate and relevant geographical knowledge and understanding throughout. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding to geographical information logically to find fully relevant connections/relationships between stimulus material and the question. (AO2)

Relevant content may include:

AO1

There are significant variations in health and life expectancy within countries.
In 2019, life expectancies were highest in London (85) and lowest in the North East (2020).
Between 2015 and 2019, life expectancy in all regions was generally rising, and life expectancies in all regions fell between 2019 and 2020.
Regions with the lowest life expectancies include the North East, North West, Yorkshire, and the Humber. Regions with the highest life expectancies include London, the South East, and the South West. This represents a north-south divide in life expectancy in England.

AO2

Variations in income will lead to inequalities in access to resources to enable a healthy lifestyle, and higher rates of engagement with risk factors, such as smoking.
In the UK, healthcare inequalities exist between some groups and communities.
Women living in the most-deprived areas of England have a life expectancy that is 8 years lower than those living in the least-deprived areas.
Those living in areas with higher deprivation are more likely to lack access to healthcare services due to a lack of access to transport, language barriers, literacy levels, misinformation, and poor experiences in the past.

Example answer: Between 2015 and 2019, life expectancy in all regions was generally rising, and life expectancies in all regions fell between 2019 and 2020. There are significant variations in health and life expectancy within England. In 2019, life expectancies were highest in London (85) and lowest in the North East (2020). Variations in income will lead to inequalities in access to resources to enable a healthy lifestyle, and higher rates of engagement with risk factors, such as smoking. Regions with the lowest life expectancies include the North East, North West, Yorkshire, and the Humber. Women living in the most-deprived areas of England have a life expectancy that is 8 years lower than those living in the least-deprived areas. Those living in areas with higher deprivation are more likely to lack access to healthcare services due to a lack of access to transport, language barriers, literacy levels, misinformation, and poor experiences in the past. Regions with the highest life expectancies include London, the South East, and the South West. This represents a north-south divide in life expectancy in the England.

AO1 = 8

Level	Marks	Description
	0	No rewardable material.
1	1–2	Demonstrates isolated elements of geographical knowledge and understanding, some of which may be inaccurate or irrelevant. (AO1) Understanding addresses a narrow range of geographical ideas, which lacks detail. (AO1)
2	3–5	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is mostly relevant and may include some inaccuracies. (AO1) Understanding addresses a range of geographical ideas, which are not fully detailed and/or developed. (AO1)
3	6–8	Demonstrates accurate and relevant geographical knowledge and understanding throughout. (AO1) Understanding addresses a broad range of geographical ideas, which are detailed and fully developed. (AO1)

Relevant content may include:

Dominant IGOs include The World Bank—a financial institution that provides loans and funding to developing countries, NGOs, and environmental organisations; the International Monetary Fund (IMF)—the financial agency of the United Nations which gives loans to countries in financial difficulty and advises countries; and the World Trade Organization—an organisation that facilitates trade between countries by negotiating agreements.
Traditionally, the dominant IGOs have promoted neo-liberal views of development which encouraged the adoption of free trade by removing trade barriers, privatising services and industries that have been owned by the state, and deregulating financial markets by removing restrictions on businesses to make it easier for them to trade.
In the 1980s, the IMF and the World Bank promoted Structural Adjustment Programmes (SAPs) which involved lending a developing country money to boost economic growth and reduce poverty. Countries must also implement neo-liberal policies. SAPs were criticised for opening developing countries up to exploitation and increasing their debt.
In 1996, the IMF and World Bank launched the Heavily Indebted Poor Countries Initiative, which cleared the unsustainable debts owed by 36 eligible developing countries, enabling them to spend more on health and education services instead of debt repayments.
Today, IGO programmes have been aimed at improving environmental quality, health, education, and human rights.
The World Bank’s water and sanitation project has increased access to clean water for 560,000 people in Haiti’s rural areas.
They are also funding a project to support Indonesia improve the lives of coastal communities and increase resilience to sea level rise.

Example answer: Dominant IGOs include the World Bank—a financial institution that provides loans and funding to developing countries, NGOs, and environmental organisations; the International Monetary Fund (IMF)—the financial agency of the United Nations which gives loans to countries in financial difficulty and advises countries; and the World Trade Organization—an organisation that facilitates trade between countries by negotiating agreements. Traditionally, the dominant IGOs have promoted neo-liberal views of development which encouraged the adoption of free trade by removing trade barriers, privatising services and industries that have been owned by the state, and deregulating financial markets by removing restrictions on businesses to make it easier for them to trade. In the 1980s, the IMF and the World Bank promoted Structural Adjustment Programmes (SAPs) which involved lending a developing country money to boost economic growth and reduce poverty. Countries must also implement neo-liberal policies. SAPs were criticised for opening developing countries up to exploitation and increasing their debt. In 1996, the IMF and World Bank launched the Heavily Indebted Poor Countries Initiative, which cleared the unsustainable debts owed by 36 eligible developing countries, enabling them to spend more on health and education services instead of debt repayments. Today, IGO programmes have been aimed at improving environmental quality, health, education, and human rights. For example, the World Bank’s water and sanitation project has increased access to clean water for 560,000 people in Haiti’s rural areas. They are also funding a project to support Indonesia improve the lives of coastal communities and increase resilience to sea level rise.

AO1 = 8

Level	Marks	Description
	0	No rewardable material.
1	1–2	Demonstrates isolated elements of geographical knowledge and understanding, some of which may be inaccurate or irrelevant. (AO1) Understanding addresses a narrow range of geographical ideas, which lacks detail. (AO1)
2	3–5	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is mostly relevant and may include some inaccuracies. (AO1) Understanding addresses a range of geographical ideas, which are not fully detailed and/or developed. (AO1)
3	6–8	Demonstrates accurate and relevant geographical knowledge and understanding throughout. (AO1) Understanding addresses a broad range of geographical ideas, which are detailed and fully developed. (AO1)

Relevant content may include:

In some states (post-colonial states) there are significant groups, defined by gender and/or ethnicity, that have had fewer rights than the dominant group. Differences in rights are frequently reflected in differences in levels of health and education.
The colonisation of Australia from 1788 to 1890 dispossessed the Indigenous people of their land.
There are differences in key indicators of quality of life (health, housing, employment, education) between ATSI peoples (those indigenous to Australia and its associated islands) and non-Indigenous Australians.
Australia adopted the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (UNDRIP) in 2007 to work to improve the rights of ATSI peoples.
School attendance rates are lower for ATSI peoples than non-Indigenous children, usually due to issues with accessing schools in remote areas, and literacy proficiency levels were around 2 to 3 years of schooling lower.
ATSI women report experiencing violence at three times the rate of non-Indigenous Australians and face more barriers to getting help.
‘Close the Gap’ is a campaign to close the health and life expectancy gap between ATSI peoples and non-Indigenous Australians. The government reports that the aims are on track to be met.

AO1 = 8

Level	Marks	Description
	0	No rewardable material.
1	1–2	Demonstrates isolated elements of geographical knowledge and understanding, some of which may be inaccurate or irrelevant. (AO1) Understanding addresses a narrow range of geographical ideas, which lacks detail. (AO1)

Level	Marks	Description
2	3–5	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is mostly relevant and may include some inaccuracies. (AO1) Understanding addresses a range of geographical ideas, which are not fully detailed and/or developed. (AO1)
3	6–8	Demonstrates accurate and relevant geographical knowledge and understanding throughout. (AO1) Understanding addresses a broad range of geographical ideas, which are detailed and fully developed. (AO1)

Relevant content may include:

Views on human rights norms vary around the world so there are disagreements over what constitutes a violation of human rights.
Countries will vote to undertake interventions based on their own geopolitical relationships and interests.
Intervention in other countries erodes their national sovereignty (their right to authority over their own territory).
Direct military action can have positive and negative outcomes, although human rights violations are sometimes used as a reason for military intervention.
Although intervention in Libya was justified under the UN’s responsibility to protect policy, some countries were concerned that the situation did not justify intervention into Libya’s national sovereignty and highlighted how intervention to protect human rights was used inconsistently around the world.
Global strategic interests might drive military interventions but are often justified by the protagonists in terms of human rights.
For example, NATO-led military intervention in Libya was justified as humanitarian intervention to protect civilians, but some argue that the international community wanted to intervene for regime change and NATO’s bombings were unjustified.

AO1 = 8

Level	Marks	Description
	0	No rewardable material.
1	1–2	Demonstrates isolated elements of geographical knowledge and understanding, some of which may be inaccurate or irrelevant. (AO1) Understanding addresses a narrow range of geographical ideas, which lacks detail. (AO1)
2	3–5	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is mostly relevant and may include some inaccuracies. (AO1) Understanding addresses a range of geographical ideas, which are not fully detailed and/or developed. (AO1)
3	6–8	Demonstrates accurate and relevant geographical knowledge and understanding throughout. (AO1) Understanding addresses a broad range of geographical ideas, which are detailed and fully developed. (AO1)

Relevant content may include:

The success of geopolitical interventions can be measured in many ways.
Health indicators, such as increasing life expectancy and lowering of infant mortality.
Educational indicators, such as an increase in literacy rate and average years of schooling.
Increased gender inequality, such as lower maternal mortality rate and increased school enrolment of girls.
Economic indicators such as an increase in GDP per capita and a decrease in the poverty rate.
The degree that freedom of speech, freedom of the press, and freedom of information is promoted.
The humane treatment and management of refugee flows.
The introduction of democracy, good governance, and political stability. For example, the UN provides assistance at elections to around 60 countries a year and peacekeeping missions aim to strengthen democratic institutions, due to the UN’s strong belief in the link between democracy, development, and respect for human rights.
For other countries, success is measured in terms of economic growth with less attention to other aspects of development. For example, Ecuador, which became a democracy in 1979, saw strong economic growth between 2007 and 2017 due to investment in infrastructure and social spending by the government. However, it was argued that the president had authoritarian tendencies, limited the freedom of the press and there was large-scale corruption.

AO1 = 4 / AO2 = 4

Level	Marks	Description
	0	No rewardable material.
1	1–2	Demonstrates isolated or generic elements of geographical knowledge and understanding, some of which may be inaccurate or irrelevant. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding to geographical information inconsistently. Connections/relationships between stimulus material and the question may be irrelevant. (AO2)
2	3–4	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is mostly relevant and may include some inaccuracies. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding to geographical information to find some relevant connections/relationships between stimulus material and the question. (AO2)
3	5–6	Demonstrates accurate and relevant geographical knowledge and understanding throughout. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding to geographical information logically to find fully relevant connections/relationships between stimulus material and the question. (AO2)

Relevant content may include:

AO1

There is a positive relationship/correlation shown on the scatter graph, as the percentage of people using safely managed drinking water services increase, and so does life expectancy.
There is a relatively strong correlation.
There are some anomalies. Hungary has almost 100% of people using safely managed drinking water services, but a life expectancy lower than other countries with similar percentage of people using safely managed drinking water services (around 75 years).

AO2

In the developing world, there are lower levels of health and lower life expectancies.
Most deaths are due to communicable disease. Lack of access to potable water and sanitation increases the spread of waterborne diseases such as cholera and typhoid.
Life expectancy in HICs is higher as almost all the population have access to potable water.
There are many other factors that will affect the relationship shown on the graph, such as government decisions, quality of healthcare, and the prevalence of other diseases and their management.

AO1 = 4 / AO2 = 4

Level	Marks	Description
	0	No rewardable material.
1	1–2	Demonstrates isolated or generic elements of geographical knowledge and understanding, some of which may be inaccurate or irrelevant. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding to geographical information inconsistently. Connections/relationships between stimulus material and the question may be irrelevant. (AO2)
2	3–4	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is mostly relevant and may include some inaccuracies. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding to geographical information to find some relevant connections/relationships between stimulus material and the question. (AO2)
3	5–6	Demonstrates accurate and relevant geographical knowledge and understanding throughout. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding to geographical information logically to find fully relevant connections/relationships between stimulus material and the question. (AO2)

Relevant content may include:

AO1

The map shows a spatial variation where some countries have abolished the death penalty (e.g. UK, Australia, Canada) and some have retained the death penalty (e.g. USA, China, India).
Most of Europe and South America have abolished the death penalty.
There are many countries in the Middle East, Asia, and North East Africa where the death penalty is retained.
There is no link between development level and practice of the death penalty.
The death penalty violates Article 3 of the UDHR (the right to life) and Article 15 (people should be free from torture or cruel, inhuman punishment).
There are significant differences between countries in both their definitions and protection of human rights.

AO2

Some countries will agree that practicing the death penalty is a violation of the UDHR, and some will not. Although the UDHR is not legally binding.
Some countries will prioritise economic development over human rights. For example, in Singapore, corporal punishment can be used alongside imprisonment, as well as the death penalty.
Corruption in governments may mean that they are less likely to uphold their moral and legal obligations to protect human rights and the judicial system may not respect rights and freedoms.
Countries with varying levels of democratic governments, cultures, histories, and beliefs will view human rights norms differently.
Individual countries have national sovereignty, which means that they can rule their own country without external intervention.

AO1 = 8

Level	Marks	Description
	0	No rewardable material.
1	1–2	Demonstrates isolated elements of geographical knowledge and understanding, some of which may be inaccurate or irrelevant. (AO1) Understanding addresses a narrow range of geographical ideas, which lacks detail. (AO1)
2	3–5	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is mostly relevant and may include some inaccuracies. (AO1) Understanding addresses a range of geographical ideas, which are not fully detailed and/or developed. (AO1)
3	6–8	Demonstrates accurate and relevant geographical knowledge and understanding throughout. (AO1) Understanding addresses a broad range of geographical ideas, which are detailed and fully developed. (AO1)

Relevant content may include:

Lack of intervention and action in development and human rights issues may impact negatively on progress in environmental, political, and social development.
Critics of the UN Security Council argue that it fails to act in situations where action is needed to prevent violence and protect innocent citizens.
Countries with permanent seats on the Council can use their veto power to block any resolutions they do not agree with.
Russia and China used their veto power to block UN actions that would hold the regime in Libya accountable for its documented atrocities.
Lack of action in Zimbabwe have led to high poverty rates, low life expectancies, high levels of corruption, and high levels of deforestation.
In 2008, Russia and China voted against a resolution for an arms embargo, and travel ban and financial freeze on the President and senior Government officials.

AO1 = 5 / AO2 = 15

Level	Marks	Description
	0	No rewardable material.
1	1–5	Demonstrates isolated elements of geographical knowledge and understanding, some of which may be inaccurate or irrelevant. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical ideas, making limited and rarely logical connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce an interpretation with limited coherence and support from evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce an unsupported or generic conclusion, drawn from an argument that is unbalanced or lacks coherence. (AO2)
2	6–10	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is occasionally relevant and may include some inaccuracies. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas with limited but logical connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical ideas in order to produce a partial interpretation that is supported by some evidence but has limited coherence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to come to a conclusion, partially supported by an unbalanced argument with limited coherence. (AO2)
3	11–15	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is mostly relevant and accurate. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to find some logical and relevant connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical ideas in order to produce a partial but coherent interpretation that is supported by some evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to come to a conclusion, largely supported by an argument that may be unbalanced or partially coherent. (AO2)
4	16–20	Demonstrates accurate and relevant geographical knowledge and understanding throughout. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to find fully logical and relevant connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce a full and coherent interpretation that is supported by evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to come to a rational, substantiated conclusion, fully supported by a balanced argument that is drawn together coherently. (AO2)

Relevant content may include:

AO1

Income inequality and deprivation directly affect health outcomes and life expectancy through access to resources.
Individuals with lower incomes often have limited access to nutritious food, safe housing, and quality healthcare.
People living in poverty are more likely to experience food insecurity, leading to malnutrition or obesity – both of which are risk factors for non-communicable diseases.
Poor quality housing, which may have problems such as mould which can lead to further health issues, such as respiratory problems.

AO2

In countries without universal healthcare systems, low-income individuals may delay seeking medical attention due to the cost.
Income inequality often correlates with differences in access to health services.
Income inequality and deprivation also influence health indirectly. For example, lack of education can have an impact on health.
Countries with greater income inequality have worse health outcomes and lower life expectancy compared to more equal societies.
In many countries life expectancy also varies greatly depending on income level, with those on higher incomes living significantly longer than those on a lower income.
There are factors other than deprivation which will impact health and life expectancy, including genetics, lifestyle choices, cultural norms and public health policy.

Example answer: The variations in human health and life expectancy are influenced by many factors, but deprivation and income inequalities are often key aspects.

Income inequality and deprivation directly affect health outcomes and life expectancy through access to resources. Individuals with lower incomes often have limited access to nutritious food, safe housing, and quality healthcare, all of which are essential for maintaining good health. For example, people living in poverty are more likely to experience food insecurity, leading to malnutrition or obesity – both of which are risk factors for non-communicable diseases such as diabetes and heart disease. Those in deprived areas may live in poor quality housing, which may have problems such as mould which can lead to further health issues, such as respiratory problems.

Healthcare access is also important. In countries without universal healthcare systems, low-income individuals may delay seeking medical attention due to the cost, leading to the worsening of otherwise preventable or manageable conditions. Income inequality often correlates with differences in access to health services, which in turn impacts health outcomes and life expectancy.

Income inequality and deprivation also influence health indirectly. For example, education is a powerful factor in health. Those from wealthier backgrounds are more likely to attain higher levels of education, which is associated with better understanding of your own health, healthier lifestyles, and higher-income employment which allows access to improved healthcare.

Countries with greater income inequality have worse health outcomes and lower life expectancy compared to more equal societies. In many countries life expectancy also varies greatly depending on income level, with those on higher incomes living significantly longer than those on a lower income.

There are factors other than deprivation which will impact health and life expectancy, including genetics, lifestyle choices, cultural norms and public health policy. Deprivation and income inequalities are part of a complex web of factors, but are among the most significant factors in health and life expectancy.

AO1 = 5 / AO2 = 15

Level	Marks	Description
	0	No rewardable material.
1	1–5	Demonstrates isolated elements of geographical knowledge and understanding, some of which may be inaccurate or irrelevant. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical ideas, making limited and rarely logical connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce an interpretation with limited coherence and support from evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce an unsupported or generic conclusion, drawn from an argument that is unbalanced or lacks coherence. (AO2)
2	6–10	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is occasionally relevant and may include some inaccuracies. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas with limited but logical connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical ideas in order to produce a partial interpretation that is supported by some evidence but has limited coherence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to come to a conclusion, partially supported by an unbalanced argument with limited coherence. (AO2)
3	11–15	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is mostly relevant and accurate. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to find some logical and relevant connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical ideas in order to produce a partial but coherent interpretation that is supported by some evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to come to a conclusion, largely supported by an argument that may be unbalanced or partially coherent. (AO2)
4	16–20	Demonstrates accurate and relevant geographical knowledge and understanding throughout. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to find fully logical and relevant connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce a full and coherent interpretation that is supported by evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to come to a rational, substantiated conclusion, fully supported by a balanced argument that is drawn together coherently. (AO2)

Relevant content may include:

AO1

Between 2000 and 2015, the United Nation’s 8 Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) were created as a development framework that aimed to: eradicate poverty, achieve universal education, promote gender equality, reduce child mortality, improve maternal health, combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases, ensure environmental sustainability, and encourage countries to work together.
The UN post-2015 development agenda expands on the MDGs, setting new goals to include sustainable development.

AO2

Progress against the United Nation’s Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) has been mixed in terms of individual countries, global regions, and targets.
By 2015, progress had been mixed: extreme poverty had declined, primary school enrolment rate had increased, more girls were in school, the under-five mortality rate had declined by more than half, maternal mortality had declined, malaria deaths had fallen and treatment had improved for diseases, access to drinking water had improved, and official development assistance from developed countries had increased.
However, gender inequality persisted, inequalities still existed between the wealthiest and poorest areas, global carbon dioxide emissions had increased, water scarcity had increased, numbers of refugees increased, and 800 million people still lived in poverty.
The extent to which the United Nation’s MDGs were unsuccessful in progressing economic and social development varies between different regions of the world.
The poverty rate fell by 66% in Southern Asia but only 28% in Sub-Saharan Africa.
The target to reduce hunger was met in some regions (e.g. Latin America), but not met in others (e.g. Sub-Saharan Africa), and increased in Western Asia.
The relationship between economic and social development is complex and dependent on decisions made by governments on the importance of social progress as the cooperation of the government with IGOs and NGOs was required to meet the MDGs.

AO1 = 5 / AO2 = 15

Level	Marks	Description
	0	No rewardable material.
1	1–5	Demonstrates isolated elements of geographical knowledge and understanding, some of which may be inaccurate or irrelevant. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical ideas, making limited and rarely logical connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce an interpretation with limited coherence and support from evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce an unsupported or generic conclusion, drawn from an argument that is unbalanced or lacks coherence. (AO2)
2	6–10	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is occasionally relevant and may include some inaccuracies. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas with limited but logical connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical ideas in order to produce a partial interpretation that is supported by some evidence but has limited coherence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to come to a conclusion, partially supported by an unbalanced argument with limited coherence. (AO2)
3	11–15	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is mostly relevant and accurate. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to find some logical and relevant connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical ideas in order to produce a partial but coherent interpretation that is supported by some evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to come to a conclusion, largely supported by an argument that may be unbalanced or partially coherent. (AO2)
4	16–20	Demonstrates accurate and relevant geographical knowledge and understanding throughout. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to find fully logical and relevant connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce a full and coherent interpretation that is supported by evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to come to a rational, substantiated conclusion, fully supported by a balanced argument that is drawn together coherently. (AO2)

Relevant content may include:

AO1

Development aid in the form of money, technology, or expertise is given from one country to another to help improve quality of life.
The Gini Index measures income inequality within a country with a score of 0 representing perfect equality and 100 representing maximum inequality.
Development aid can take the form of charitable gifts, emergency aid to help recover from natural disasters (e.g. Haiti 2010 earthquake), specific projects, and loans.
It can be administered by NGOs (e.g. Oxfam), national governments, and IGOs.

AO2

Development aid has a mixed record of success, as the relationship of aid, development, health, and human rights is unclear.
There is success in some states (e.g. Botswana).
Botswana grew economically due to its natural resources, and invested this income in infrastructure, health, and education.
Much of Botswana’s aid has been focused towards HIV/AIDS.
Between 2010 and 2019, HIV incidence and AIDS mortality has decreased.
It has strong governance and low levels of corruption.
There have been improvements in mean years of schooling and GNI per capita.
Botswana is expected to no longer qualify for official development assistance from OECD countries by 2030.
Successes include progress in dealing with life-threatening conditions. For example, more than 80 countries donate financially to the Global Fund to address HIV, TB, and malaria, in line with SDG 3. Since 2022, the Fund has saved over 50 million lives.
There are also improvements in some aspects of human rights (gender equality). For example, 45% of OECD development assistance was dedicated to gender equality and women’s empowerment in 2019 and 2020.
There has been failure in others (e.g. Haiti).
Development aid from governments, IGOs such as the World Bank, and NGOs has failed to reach its goals in Haiti.
The UN gave more than $13 billion in international aid between 2010 and 2020.
Aid to Haiti has been ineffective as political elites have used money to their advantage with little interest in developing the country.
It remains the poorest country in the Western hemisphere and poverty levels have remained high.
There is high aid dependency.
It is still extremely vulnerable to natural disasters and disease outbreaks.
In some states that receive substantial development aid, economic inequalities have increased while in other states economic inequalities have decreased. Despite rising in the 1990s, Botswana’s score has fallen from 64.7 in 2002 to 40.7 in 2019. Haiti’s score was 53.3 in 2019.
High rates of inequality can lead to a lack of access to healthcare and a decrease in life expectancy for some communities.
Some superpowers can be seen to use aid as an extension of their foreign policies, with the goal of improving their own access to resources, geopolitical relationships, and alliances.
Some countries may become dependent on aid from other countries. For example, donations of food aid can undermine the local agricultural economy.
Top-down aid given to corrupt governments risks being misused and used for the personal gain of political elites. The World Bank has identified corruption as a major hurdle in eliminating extreme poverty by 2030.
Development aid can be seen as a success in one place context, but as a failure in another.

AO1 = 5 / AO2 = 15

Level	Marks	Description
	0	No rewardable material.
1	1–5	Demonstrates isolated elements of geographical knowledge and understanding, some of which may be inaccurate or irrelevant. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical ideas, making limited and rarely logical connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce an interpretation with limited coherence and support from evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce an unsupported or generic conclusion, drawn from an argument that is unbalanced or lacks coherence. (AO2)
2	6–10	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is occasionally relevant and may include some inaccuracies. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas with limited but logical connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical ideas in order to produce a partial interpretation that is supported by some evidence but has limited coherence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to come to a conclusion, partially supported by an unbalanced argument with limited coherence. (AO2)
3	11–15	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is mostly relevant and accurate. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to find some logical and relevant connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical ideas in order to produce a partial but coherent interpretation that is supported by some evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to come to a conclusion, largely supported by an argument that may be unbalanced or partially coherent. (AO2)
4	16–20	Demonstrates accurate and relevant geographical knowledge and understanding throughout. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to find fully logical and relevant connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce a full and coherent interpretation that is supported by evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to come to a rational, substantiated conclusion, fully supported by a balanced argument that is drawn together coherently. (AO2)

Relevant content may include:

AO1

Development aid in the form of money, technology, or expertise is given from one country to another to help improve quality of life.
Development aid can take the form of charitable gifts, emergency aid to help recover from natural disasters (e.g. Haiti 2010 earthquake), specific projects, and loans.
It can be administered by NGOs (e.g. Oxfam), national governments, and IGOs.
Aid and development projects should be sustainable development and take environmental considerations into account.

AO2

Development aid has a mixed record of success, as the relationship of aid, development, health, and human rights is unclear.
There is success in some states e.g. Botswana.
Botswana grew economically due to its natural resources, and invested this income in infrastructure, health, and education.
Much of Botswana’s aid has been focused towards HIV/AIDS.
Between 2010 and 2019, HIV incidence and AIDS mortality has decreased.
It has strong governance and low levels of corruption.
There have been improvements in mean years of schooling and GNI per capita.
Botswana is expected to no longer qualify for official development assistance from OECD countries by 2030.
Successes include progress in dealing with life-threatening conditions. For example, more than 80 countries donate financially to the Global Fund to address HIV, TB, and malaria, in line with SDG 3. Since 2022, the Fund has saved over 50 million lives.
There are also improvements in some aspects of human rights (gender equality). For example, 45% of OECD development assistance was dedicated to gender equality and women’s empowerment in 2019 and 2020.
Some economic development, both by superpowers and TNCs, has very serious impacts on the environment in which minority groups live and disregards their human rights to their land and culture.
In 2017, oil in the Niger Delta accounted for over 80% of the Nigerian government’s income.
Oil spills in 2008 and 2009 destroyed the fishing industry in Bodo village, Nigeria. TNC Shell initially offered only $4000 compensation to affected communities before being taken to court. In 2011, Shell reported spilling 17.5 million litres of oil.
Communities in the Delta region suffer from polluted water, loss of farmland, loss of mangrove forests, and a decline in biodiversity. The area suffers many oil spills due to lack of maintenance, accidents, and purposeful damage.
These ecosystems are important to the way of life of the local population, who have lost access to basic human rights, such as access to necessities and work.
Some superpowers can be seen to use development aid as an extension of their foreign policies, with the goal of improving their own access to resources, geopolitical relationships, and alliances.
Some countries may become dependent on aid from other countries. For example, donations of food aid can undermine the local agricultural economy.
Development can be seen as a success in one place context, but as a failure in another if the economic development disregards human rights and the environment.
A high GDP does not always mean that a country is socially and environmentally developed.

Chapter 11

All exemplar answers given are likely to be in the top mark band.

Questions 1–5 are point-marked.

AO1 = 4
Award 1 mark for each reason why globalisation has changed the demand for labour. Award 1 mark for an example with a detail or an extension point.

Relevant content may include:
- TNCs increase their production due to market demand.
- This provides employment opportunities in different sectors in their business.
- A new factory will require manufacturing workers.
- Quaternary sector jobs within the TNCs such as finance and legal work will attract highly educated employees.
- Globalisation has increased the level of jobs needed with specialised skills (e.g. technology and research).
- Construction workers may be sought to complete large building project (e.g. Qatar 2022 World Cup infrastructure).
- Globalisation has also seen a rise in the need for employment in the service economy (e.g. through tourism and entertainment).
- New products and services may develop due to globalisation, providing the need for workers to produce these to meet demand.
- Globalisation can change the type of labour required in different regions (e.g. due to economic change from primary to secondary industry or due to the global shift of manufacturing from HICs to MICs).
Example answer: Globalisation has significantly altered labour demand across different sectors of the economy in different countries. Transnational corporations (TNCs), respond to the demand of the market, increase production, and create diverse employment opportunities within their operations. For instance, the establishment of new factories requires a workforce skilled in manufacturing. Moreover, the expansion of TNCs into the quaternary sector, including finance and legal services, attracts highly educated professionals. This shift has raised the demand for specialised skills, particularly in technology and research. Large-scale infrastructure projects, like the Qatar 2022 World Cup, need construction workers, the majority of whom come from abroad. Globalisation also fuels employment growth in the service economy, including in sectors such as tourism and entertainment.
AO1 = 4
Award 1 mark for each reason why countries allow freedom of movement within their borders. Award 1 mark for an example with a detail or an extension point.

Relevant content may include:
- Freedom of movement within a country allows people to move to areas within a country that may offer better opportunities that link to their skills.
- Employers can also get workers from a wider region than just the local area which helps them to be competitive.
- People can choose to move for different reasons other than employment, such as to be near family and friends or because of lifestyle choices.
- Some people may see this movement as a right within a democratic country.
- Migrants bring economic benefits and spend money earned in the new region, stimulating economic development.
- Migrants help to fill the ‘skills gap’, particularly in parts of the country that may have a higher percentage of dependents than other parts of the country.
- Internal migration increases the exchange of ideas, cultures, and traditions among different regions within a country. This can enrich diversity and help social cohesion.
AO1 = 4
Award 1 mark for each reason why national identity may be tied to a country’s legal system. Award 1 mark for an example with a detail or an extension point.

Relevant content may include:
- Legal systems are important in a country.
- People will have faith and take pride in their country’s legal systems if they are fair and promote justice. Countries have different approaches to their legal system.
- In the UK, the jury system is an important part as people accused of serious offences are tried by a 12-person jury, selected at random from the general public.
- Some people believe this is the most effective way to gain an unbiased and just result of a trial. They may feel this is a key part of their country’s values, contributing to its identity.
- A country’s legal system is linked to its historical development, with laws and constitutions being key aspects of national identity.
- Legal ceremonies are part of life within a country.
- Legal systems can promote the norms and values of a country, reflecting its national identity.
- Legal symbols (e.g. flags and crests) reinforce a country’s national identity.
AO1 = 4
Award 1 mark for each way in which globalisation has encouraged the growth of tax havens. Award 1 mark for an example with a detail or an extension point.

Relevant content may include:
- Tax havens provide opportunities for companies and individuals to reduce the amount of taxes they pay and so increase their profitability.
- Globalisation has helped this by making it easier for capital to flow between national borders as companies and individuals can transfer funds internationally through digital transfers.
- This means that they can transfer money instantly to anywhere in the world.
- Globalisation has helped individuals and TNCs to exploit differences in tax laws between different countries.
- TNCs can move money so they can take advantage of lower or zero tax rates. The free movement of capital through financial deregulation has helped this. (1)
- Globalisation has helped individuals and TNCs to exploit differences in tax laws between different countries.
- Financial companies can offshore some of their activities to tax havens more easily due to globalisation eg banks.
AO3 = 4
Award 1 mark for each correct answer, and 1 mark for each working.

(a) Calculate the percentage change from V₁to V₂.

$V_1$

$V_2$

$\begin{aligned} & \frac{(V_2 – V_1)}{V_1} \times 100 \\ &= \frac{(16900 – 7851)}{7851} \times 100 \\ &= \frac{9049}{7851} \times 100 \\ &= 1.15259 \times 100 \\ &= 115.259\% \text{ change} \\ &= 115.3\% \text{ increase} \end{aligned}$

(b) Relevant content may include:
- There are a number of reasons for the increase of animal species on the IUCN Red List.
- Habitats may be lost due to human activities, e.g. agriculture, climate change may affect ecosystems, threatening species.
- Habitats may be polluted by human activities, e.g. by soil contamination.
- Species may also be poached or illegally traded, putting species populations at risk.
AO1 = 6
Award 1 mark for each reason why not all nation states are universally recognised. Award 1 mark for an example with a detail or an extension point.

Relevant content may include:
- Nation states may be recognised by some countries but not by others for different reasons.
- There may have been historic conflicts or disputes which have led to one or more countries claiming the same territory.
- One country may not recognise another’s claim.
- Certain states may not be recognised by some countries that do not want to risk political tension with the country disputing the claim.
- It may be in a country’s geopolitical interest not to recognise a particular nation state.
- Division of ethnicity, religion, and culture may cause competing claims for the recognition of a state, leading to lack of universal recognition.
- Some territories within the state may not be recognised, including those where there are conflicting claims over borders.
- Some states may not meet accepted criteria to be recognised as a sovereign nation.
AO1 = 6
Award 1 mark for each reason why migration changes the cultural composition of nation states. Award 1 mark for an example with a detail or an extension point.

Relevant content may include:
- Migration brings people from different languages, traditions, customs and backgrounds to the destination country.
- Migrants integrate into the new country, they may blend some of their culture into that of the host country, increasing cultural diversity further.
- Migrants exchange ideas and practices with other communities, both resident and other migrant groups, further adding to the diversity of culture
- Migration can alter the demographic composition of a country with some age groups/genders becoming more dominant in certain areas e.g. urban areas. This affects the cultural composition in these areas.
Questions 6–11 are level-marked.

AO1 = 8

Level	Marks	Description
	0	No rewardable material.
1	1–2	Demonstrates isolated elements of geographical knowledge and understanding, some of which may be inaccurate or irrelevant. (AO1) Understanding addresses a narrow range of geographical ideas, which lacks detail. (AO1)
2	3–5	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is mostly relevant and may include some inaccuracies. (AO1) Understanding addresses a range of geographical ideas, which are not fully detailed and/or developed. (AO1)
3	6–8	Demonstrates accurate and relevant geographical knowledge and understanding throughout. (AO1) Understanding addresses a broad range of geographical ideas, which are detailed and fully developed. (AO1)

Relevant content may include:

The reasons why some migrants move from rural to urban areas are complex.
Migration involves both push factors (problems in rural areas) and pull factors (attractions to urban areas).
Employment opportunities: Rural areas may have less chances of work or the work that is available is low paid or unpredictable.
Agriculture is a main sector of employment in rural areas and employment may become more difficult due to the arrival of TNCs in agribusiness, changing traditional land ownership structures or due to climate change (more unpredictable rainfall or droughts).
Urban areas have a larger range of job opportunities e.g. industry, business and services. Migrants may seek better pay and conditions. It also offers the chance to escape from poverty.
Education: Rural areas may have a more limited range of educational opportunities, especially at secondary and university level.
Migrants with families may move to urban areas to gain better access to different educational opportunities, including more specialised training.
Infrastructure and services: Housing, transport and access to utilities e.g. electricity may be better in urban areas. Internet connections may also be more available.
Access to a wider range of healthcare services can be better in urban areas, giving migrants a better quality of life.
More cultural activities: more diverse population and so people have the chance to meet and work with people from different backgrounds.
There may be a greater range of entertainment and amenities.
Migrants who are entrepreneurial will have access to larger populations and so larger markets.
Migrants may also move due to increasing environmental challenges such as climate change or natural disasters, e.g. flooding.

Example answer: The reasons why some migrants move from rural to urban areas are complex, involving both push factors (problems in rural areas) and pull factors (attractions to urban areas).

Employment opportunities is one reason. Rural areas may have less chances of work or if work is available that work often is low paid or unpredictable. Agriculture is a main sector of employment in rural areas and employment may become more difficult due to the arrival of TNCs in agribusiness, changing traditional land ownership structures or due to climate change (more unpredictable rainfall or droughts). Urban areas have a larger range of job opportunities e.g. industry, business and services. Migrants may seek better pay and conditions. It also offers the chance to escape from poverty.

Education is another factor. Rural areas may have a more limited range of educational opportunities, especially at secondary and university level. Migrants with families may move to urban areas to gain better access to different educational opportunities, including more specialised training.

Infrastructure and services may be better in the city. Housing, transport and access to utilities e.g. electricity may be better in urban areas. Internet connections may also be more available. Access to a wider range of healthcare services can be better in urban areas, giving migrants a better quality of life.

Migrants may also benefit from more cultural activities. There will be a more diverse population and so people have the chance to meet and work with people from different backgrounds. There may be a greater range of entertainment and amenities. Migrants who are entrepreneurial will have access to larger populations and so larger markets. Migrants may also move due to increasing environmental challenges such as climate change or natural disasters, e.g. flooding.

AO1 = 8

Level	Marks	Description
	0	No rewardable material.
1	1–2	Demonstrates isolated elements of geographical knowledge and understanding, some of which may be inaccurate or irrelevant. (AO1) Understanding addresses a narrow range of geographical ideas, which lacks detail. (AO1)
2	3–5	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is mostly relevant and may include some inaccuracies. (AO1) Understanding addresses a range of geographical ideas, which are not fully detailed and/or developed. (AO1)
3	6–8	Demonstrates accurate and relevant geographical knowledge and understanding throughout. (AO1) Understanding addresses a broad range of geographical ideas, which are detailed and fully developed. (AO1)

Relevant content may include:

Globalisation may cause tension within the emerging BRIC economies as some regions and groups within them may benefit more than others from its effects.
Development caused by globalisation may be uneven and inequalities may persist or even increase.
Globalisation may bring FDI and employment opportunities bringing income to those areas, but others with less FDI may be disadvantaged, especially if people internally migrate from those areas to find employment and better wages.
Some groups who do not see benefits from globalisation or may feel exploited by it could feel alienated, leading to a rise in support for nationalist groups.
There may be a rise in ethnic tensions as some minority groups feel left behind by the advance of globalisation.
Loss of national identity, control or ownership through an increase in investment from foreign individuals and companies could lead to loss of government trust, causing political division and protests.
Governments may have to deal with rising inequalities between different levels of income earners.
An increase in new middle classes with increased spending power could make lower income workers feel disenfranchised from the system.
This could be made worse if the cost of living increases.
An increase in international or internal migration could lead to increased diversity of people with different backgrounds in the host destination, causing tensions.

AO1 = 8

Level	Marks	Description
	0	No rewardable material.
1	1–2	Demonstrates isolated elements of geographical knowledge and understanding, some of which may be inaccurate or irrelevant. (AO1) Understanding addresses a narrow range of geographical ideas, which lacks detail. (AO1)
2	3–5	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is mostly relevant and may include some inaccuracies. (AO1) Understanding addresses a range of geographical ideas, which are not fully detailed and/or developed. (AO1)
3	6–8	Demonstrates accurate and relevant geographical knowledge and understanding throughout. (AO1) Understanding addresses a broad range of geographical ideas, which are detailed and fully developed. (AO1)

Relevant content may include:

Structural Adjustment Programmes (SAPs) and Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) policies have been methods to improve development in countries that have been affected by debt.
Borrowing large amounts of money (e.g. for oil or to pay for large infrastructure projects) leads to problems of repaying both the debt itself and the servicing (paying interest) on that debt.
This diverts money from areas that could help to improve development levels.
SAPs involved loaning money to developing countries to improve development levels, but with conditions attached.
Governments had to cut spending on certain sectors of the economy.
Some governments cut investments in the health and education sectors, affecting development in the short- to long-term.
Some governments had to invest in new sectors of the economy (e.g. tourism) to reduce reliance on poorer performing parts of the economy.
Jamaica accepted loans from the IMF and the WB in the 1970s and 1980s, partly due to high levels of external debt.
The conditions were that government spending and inflation would be reduced, the currency would be devalued, privatisation encouraged, FDI targeted through a low wage economy, and the adoption of free trade policies.
However, lack of investment in healthcare led to a decrease in nurses and an increase in mothers dying in childbirth. The number of children attending primary school fell.
HIPC policies allow the poorest countries to apply for debt relief on loans.
To qualify, they needed to meet criteria, including planned strategies to reduce poverty.
HIPC policies have led to debt reductions but have been criticised because conditions still apply.

AO1 = 8

Level	Marks	Description
	0	No rewardable material.
1	1–2	Demonstrates isolated elements of geographical knowledge and understanding, some of which may be inaccurate or irrelevant. (AO1) Understanding addresses a narrow range of geographical ideas, which lacks detail. (AO1)
2	3–5	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is mostly relevant and may include some inaccuracies. (AO1) Understanding addresses a range of geographical ideas, which are not fully detailed and/or developed. (AO1)
3	6–8	Demonstrates accurate and relevant geographical knowledge and understanding throughout. (AO1) Understanding addresses a broad range of geographical ideas, which are detailed and fully developed. (AO1)

Relevant content may include:

One way oceans are managed by IGOs is through the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), which governs the use of oceans.
Coastal states have rights over its Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ), up to 200 nautical miles from the coast, to gain resources and also to protect marine ecosystems.
Outside of this, all nations have the right to fish on the high seas but have to adopt measures to manage and conserve living resources, and prevent and control marine pollution.
They also have to cooperate with other nations.
Although the regulations have been successful in helping to reduce pollution and improving the environment for marine ecosystems, there have been challenges linked to the overexploitation of resources as coastal states prioritise their own interests.
UNCLOS is hard to enforce, with some species needing additional protection (e.g. whales).
Climate change is leading to the warming of waters in regions such as the Arctic.
This leads to increased access to resources and more pressure on UNCLOS to effectively manage these international waters.
Areas of the high seas may be subject to claims by different countries (e.g. the South China Sea), challenging UNCLOS in these regions.

AO1 = 8

Level	Marks	Description
	0	No rewardable material.
1	1–2	Demonstrates isolated elements of geographical knowledge and understanding, some of which may be inaccurate or irrelevant. (AO1) Understanding addresses a narrow range of geographical ideas, which lacks detail. (AO1)

Level	Marks	Description
2	3–5	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is mostly relevant and may include some inaccuracies. (AO1) Understanding addresses a range of geographical ideas, which are not fully detailed and/or developed. (AO1)
3	6–8	Demonstrates accurate and relevant geographical knowledge and understanding throughout. (AO1) Understanding addresses a broad range of geographical ideas, which are detailed and fully developed. (AO1)

Relevant content may include:

Property and land in a country may be bought and owned by foreign individuals or companies.
They may seek profits from investments or may wish to gain influence depending on where the property is and what the land is used for.
Foreign investors may wish to buy in wealthier areas e.g. Mayfair in London or fund larger property projects such as city centre redevelopments.
Non-national ownership may lead to perceptions of places feeling ‘less British’ depending on the use of the land or property.
House prices in the area may increase in local areas where non-nationals have bought property, so nationals may find it more difficult to rent or buy housing, increasing inequality and feelings of injustice.
This may increase nationalistic sentiments in the resident population.
Depending on planning controls, architecture of new buildings may vary from traditional structures.
Investors may seek to exert political influence when buying property or land which could challenge national identity.
If areas of strategic land are controlled by foreign nationals, this may affect national security, impacting national identity, particularly if the investors’ interests do not align with the host country.

AO1 = 5 / AO2 = 15

Level	Marks	Description
	0	No rewardable material.
1	1–5	Demonstrates isolated elements of geographical knowledge and understanding, some of which may be inaccurate or irrelevant. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical ideas, making limited and rarely logical connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce an interpretation with limited coherence and support from evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce an unsupported or generic conclusion, drawn from an argument that is unbalanced or lacks coherence. (AO2)
2	6–10	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is occasionally relevant and may include some inaccuracies. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas with limited but logical connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical ideas in order to produce a partial interpretation that is supported by some evidence but has limited coherence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to come to a conclusion, partially supported by an unbalanced argument with limited coherence. (AO2)
3	11–15	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is mostly relevant and accurate. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to find some logical and relevant connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical ideas in order to produce a partial but coherent interpretation that is supported by some evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to come to a conclusion, largely supported by an argument that may be unbalanced or partially coherent. (AO2)
4	16–20	Demonstrates accurate and relevant geographical knowledge and understanding throughout. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to find fully logical and relevant connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce a full and coherent interpretation that is supported by evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to come to a rational, substantiated conclusion, fully supported by a balanced argument that is drawn together coherently. (AO2)

The indicative content below is not prescriptive and candidates are not required to include all of it. Other relevant material not suggested below must also be credited.

Relevant content may include:

AO1

There are a complex range of global issues facing the world’s population.
These include raising development levels, tackling and dealing with the effects of climate change, trade, political stability, and global events (e.g. COVID-19 pandemic).
These global issues have been addressed by the bodies of the UN in different ways.

AO2

The UN has played a part in the increased interdependence of countries, particularly in fostering international relationships and cooperation.
The UN has helped to address global inequalities through its MDG and SDG programmes by helping to increase global standards of living since the Second World War, through reducing poverty, increasing life expectancy, and increased child survival.
UN peacekeeping has increased political stability in some regions. The UN provides a global forum for the discussion and management of world issues, and sets targets and treaties to tackle them.
It can also discuss strategies to improve security and promote peace at times of conflict between nations.
Climate and environmental issues are particularly important as problems and solutions require international cooperation.
The UNFCCC has coordinated discussions and resolutions to address the global temperature rise and the impacts of climate change.
Through its agency WHO, the UN has a significant impact on health, for example, smallpox has been eradicated, and it was at the forefront of the global coordination of advice to tackle the COVID-19 pandemic.
However, the UN has faced criticism from some groups.
Many SDGs are not on track, meaning a slower reduction of global inequalities.
UN peacekeeping has had limited success in maintaining peace and stability in some regions. Five permanent members of the UN Security Council can veto resolutions and so influence geopolitical events more than other UN member states.
The UN has been criticised for not having robust enough targets to tackle some challenges and lacking power to enforce individual countries to keep to the rules.
It also takes time for decisions to be made and implemented.

Evaluation will depend on the examples chosen.

The UN is the world’s most important IGO and has significant influence.
It can coordinate efforts to tackle world issues at a global level and seek to ensure cooperation between its member states—the majority of world countries.
However, the UN has been criticised for not being able to enforce fully on the actions it puts forward, and for being too slow to act on pressing international issues.

Example answer: There are a complex range of global issues facing the world’s population. These include raising development levels, tackling and dealing with the effects of climate change, trade, political stability, and global events (e.g. the COVID-19 pandemic). These global issues require international coordination and cooperation to be addressed successfully. As the most globally influential IGO, the UN, through its different bodies, has tried to tackle these in different ways and with varying degrees of success.

The UN has played an important part in the increased interdependence of countries, particularly in fostering international relationships and cooperation. The UN has helped to address global inequalities through its MDG and subsequent SDG programmes by helping to increase global standards of living since the Second World War, through reducing poverty, increasing life expectancy, and increased child survival. It has played a fundamental role in the protection of human rights through its Universal Declaration of Human Rights. UN peacekeeping has increased political stability in some regions. The UN provides a global forum for the discussion and management of world issues, and sets targets and treaties to tackle them. It can also discuss strategies to improve security and promote peace at times of conflict between nations. Climate and environmental issues are particularly important as problems and solutions require international cooperation. The UNFCCC has coordinated discussions and resolutions to address the global temperature rise and the impacts of climate change. Through its agency WHO, smallpox has been eradicated, and it was at the forefront of global coordination of advice to tackle the COVID-19 pandemic. It also provided access to vaccines for LICs to reduce transmission.

However, the UN has faced criticism from some groups. Some argue that the UN’s health agency WHO’s reaction to the Ebola crisis in West Africa in 2014 was slow and malaria eradication remains a significant challenge. Many SDGs are not on track, meaning a slower reduction of global inequalities. Critics argue that the UN has faced challenges when tackling long-term conflicts (e.g. in Syria and Yemen). UN peacekeeping has had limited success in maintaining peace and stability in some regions. Five permanent members of the UN Security Council can veto resolutions and so influence geopolitical events more than other UN member states. The UN has been criticised for not having robust enough targets to tackle some challenges and lacking power to enforce individual countries to keep to the rules. It relies heavily on its member states for the enforcement of its resolutions which poses problems when member states, including powerful ones, choose not to comply with decisions or who act in their own interests. While international disputes can be brought to the UN’s International Court of Justice, the UN’s authority is limited by the sovereign powers of its member states. It also takes time for decisions to be made and implemented. Although the UN’s SDG programme continues to address a wide range of key global issues, progress remains uneven both between individual goals and between different regions of the world. For example, while mobile networks (included in SDG 9) has increased globally, access to safe nutritious food (an aspect of SDG 2) remains a significant challenge in many regions of the world.

Overall, the UN is the world’s most important IGO and has significant influence. It can coordinate efforts to tackle world issues at a global level and seek to ensure cooperation between its member states. However, the UN has been criticised for not being able to enforce fully on the actions it puts forward and for being too slow to act on pressing international issues. Some of its initiatives may have been more successful than others, including for different groups and across different timeframes.

Commented [JB1]: Much of the Information required to enable this part of the response to be written is on page 296 and 297 but some aspects, such as ebola, Covid 19 and the UNFCCC are not covered in this chapter of teh revision guide.

AO1 = 5 / AO2 = 15

Level	Marks	Description
	0	No rewardable material.
1	1–5	Demonstrates isolated elements of geographical knowledge and understanding, some of which may be inaccurate or irrelevant. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical ideas, making limited and rarely logical connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce an interpretation with limited coherence and support from evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce an unsupported or generic conclusion, drawn from an argument that is unbalanced or lacks coherence. (AO2)
2	6–10	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is occasionally relevant and may include some inaccuracies. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas with limited but logical connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical ideas in order to produce a partial interpretation that is supported by some evidence but has limited coherence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to come to a conclusion, partially supported by an unbalanced argument with limited coherence. (AO2)
3	11–15	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is mostly relevant and accurate. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to find some logical and relevant connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical ideas in order to produce a partial but coherent interpretation that is supported by some evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to come to a conclusion, largely supported by an argument that may be unbalanced or partially coherent. (AO2)
4	16–20	Demonstrates accurate and relevant geographical knowledge and understanding throughout. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to find fully logical and relevant connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce a full and coherent interpretation that is supported by evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to come to a rational, substantiated conclusion, fully supported by a balanced argument that is drawn together coherently. (AO2)

Relevant content may include:

AO1

The IMF, World Bank (WB), and WTO are an important part of the global economy.

Their policies and actions have been beneficial for some but have brought challenges for others.

AO2

The IMF encourages financial cooperation and encourages national governments to promote policies which increase prosperity.
By giving loans to countries, they aim to improve a country’s economic development, when otherwise a country may not be able to afford to invest in areas which will boost its economy.
The WB provides low interest loans and grants to fund development projects.
By investing in infrastructure and services, the WB aims to improve the economy of countries by increasing their level of development.
IGOs have created common rules which countries must follow. These rules aim to consider all parties and to reduce differences and their impacts.
International bodies (e.g. the WB and the IMF) may be needed to tackle global issues such as financial crises or intervene in national economies such as providing loans for projects to improve economic development or to provide financial assistance at times of need (e.g. after a natural disaster).
The WTO also acts as a referee in trade disputes, allowing countries to challenge trade arrangements they feel disadvantaged by.
Some critics argue that financial IGOs may contribute to economic inequalities.
There may be power imbalances within IGOs, with a select number of the wealthiest countries influencing decision-making.
The WTO favours a free-trade model, which puts some LICs at an economic disadvantage. LICs may export lower-value goods but import higher-value manufactured goods, leaving them with a trade deficit.
Some may argue that international organisations should be doing more to help LICs access the world trade system more fairly.
For example, trade blocs may impose tariffs on imports from LDEs.
In addition, loan conditions from WB or IMF may have long-term effects on LDE’s economies and societies. Governments may have to cut key spending in health and education to meet the conditions of loans set, or restructure their economies.

Evaluation will depend on the examples chosen.

IGOs have a significant influence on the global economy.
By promoting free trade, they aim to help countries to improve their economic status.
However, some LICs may be put at a disadvantage by this approach and find it difficult to have equal access to world trade and the income it brings

AO1 = 5 / AO2 = 15

Level	Marks	Description
	0	No rewardable material.
1	1–5	Demonstrates isolated elements of geographical knowledge and understanding, some of which may be inaccurate or irrelevant. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical ideas, making limited and rarely logical connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce an interpretation with limited coherence and support from evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce an unsupported or generic conclusion, drawn from an argument that is unbalanced or lacks coherence. (AO2)
2	6–10	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is occasionally relevant and may include some inaccuracies. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas with limited but logical connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical ideas in order to produce a partial interpretation that is supported by some evidence but has limited coherence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to come to a conclusion, partially supported by an unbalanced argument with limited coherence. (AO2)
3	11–15	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is mostly relevant and accurate. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to find some logical and relevant connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical ideas in order to produce a partial but coherent interpretation that is supported by some evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to come to a conclusion, largely supported by an argument that may be unbalanced or partially coherent. (AO2)
4	16–20	Demonstrates accurate and relevant geographical knowledge and understanding throughout. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to find fully logical and relevant connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce a full and coherent interpretation that is supported by evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to come to a rational, substantiated conclusion, fully supported by a balanced argument that is drawn together coherently. (AO2)

Relevant content may include:

AO1

The Antarctic Treaty System (ATS) is a range of conventions and treaties.
Its aim is to protect the Antarctic continent as a natural reserve for peace and science.
The growth of tourism, change, and the increased need for resources are important new challenges facing the Antarctic continent.

AO2

Some argue that the ATS has been effective as it has brought peace and stability.
Military activities are prohibited so there have not been any major conflicts/wars on the Antarctic continent.
It has led to environmental preservation as mining is banned for the foreseeable future, as well as the prohibition of nuclear testing and radioactive waste disposal, reducing threat to the landscape and ecosystems.
The management of ongoing scientific research is effective as it relies on international cooperation in an extreme environment. Rules are in place to lessen the impact of research on the environment.
However, others argue that the ATS has limitations.
The ATS was signed in 1959. It has increased in scope, but twenty-first century challenges are complex. For example, climate change, demand for resources, technological advances, changing balance of geopolitical power, and the effectiveness of large international organisations to make and enforce decisions in an increasingly globalised world.
Some argue that the ATS needs reform to deal with these issues more effectively.
Tourism has also grown significantly in the twenty-first century in Antarctica. This also poses challenges to the Antarctic environment, which may not be covered effectively enough within the existing ATS.
There is a lack of enforcement policies. The ATS relies on countries following rules and guidelines. If countries do not comply then it is more difficult to enforce rules quickly.
The ATS has worked successfully on protection of marine environments and species (e.g. CCAMLR) but this may be challenged as demand for resources grows.
The ATS has limited influence on causes and management of climate change, but experiences its effects (e.g. changing of calving rates of ice sheets).
It is mainly HICs that are represented in the ATS’s key decision-making. There are calls for other countries (e.g. LICs and some MICs) to have more influence. Also, if there are future disputes, has the ATS the authority to solve them in a timely fashion?

Evaluation will depend on the examples chosen.

The ATS has provided a framework for peace and science in Antarctica, and there have been no major conflicts within the continent.
It has brought successes such as protecting marine wildlife.
However, despite the ATS, there are significant challenges for Antarctica posed by external forces such as climate change, as well as the increase in tourism.

AO1 = 5 / AO2 = 15

Level	Marks	Description
	0	No rewardable material.
1	1–5	Demonstrates isolated elements of geographical knowledge and understanding, some of which may be inaccurate or irrelevant. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical ideas, making limited and rarely logical connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce an interpretation with limited coherence and support from evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce an unsupported or generic conclusion, drawn from an argument that is unbalanced or lacks coherence. (AO2)
2	6–10	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is occasionally relevant and may include some inaccuracies. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas with limited but logical connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical ideas in order to produce a partial interpretation that is supported by some evidence but has limited coherence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to come to a conclusion, partially supported by an unbalanced argument with limited coherence. (AO2)
3	11–15	Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding, which is mostly relevant and accurate. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to find some logical and relevant connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical ideas in order to produce a partial but coherent interpretation that is supported by some evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to come to a conclusion, largely supported by an argument that may be unbalanced or partially coherent. (AO2)
4	16–20	Demonstrates accurate and relevant geographical knowledge and understanding throughout. (AO1) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to find fully logical and relevant connections/relationships. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to produce a full and coherent interpretation that is supported by evidence. (AO2) Applies knowledge and understanding of geographical information/ideas to come to a rational, substantiated conclusion, fully supported by a balanced argument that is drawn together coherently. (AO2)

Relevant content may include:

AO1

Political instability and the breakdown of government institutions in a ‘fragile state’ make it difficult for recognised bodies of state (e.g. parliament) to act to unify the country.
This affects national identity, as security and the rule of law is broken down.

AO2

Some argue that national identity is severely threatened in ‘fragile states’.
‘Fragile states’ may have to contend with rival factions vying for power or contesting governments. Conflicts can be localised or develop into civil war.
Conflicts may also cause damage to features of cultural heritage which are a part of a nation’s identity.
Different groups may separate due to a number of reasons (e.g. ethnic background, language, religious, or location).
They may not have a shared vision of what their nation state should be like, eroding a sense of national identity.
As economies of ‘fragile states’ may be unstable or indeed have collapsed, there is a lack of basic needs and services such as food, clean water, healthcare, and education.
This affects levels of development and maintains tensions as people are disillusioned with what the state has to offer, reducing their confidence and affinity with the state.
People, including refugees may be displaced. They may lose connections with their source region or find it difficult to integrate in their new location. This could reduce their confidence in their nation’s ability to meet their needs, affecting their attitude towards their nation.
‘Fragile state’ may have broken legal systems. This may decrease the level of trust of the population in the ability of the state to act fairly or justly, eroding feelings of national identity.
The intervention of foreign parties (e.g. IGOs or NGOs) may challenge autonomy, eroding a sense of national independence.
A ‘fragile state’ may not be able to offer its population the usual rights and benefits of citizenship, again negatively influencing national identity.
While national identity can be unstable in ‘failed states’, there may be nationalist movements looking to regain control based on historical traditions, national characteristics, and the backgrounds of the population.

Evaluation will depend on the examples chosen.

‘Fragile states’ pose significant threats to national identity, as many of the intuitions and values associated with the nation will be severely weakened.
If IGOs intervene, the influence of foreign decision-making in a nation’s affairs may also affect its national identity.

⌃