EDEXCEL GCSE HISTORY: THE AMERICAN WEST, C1835-C1895 | ANSWERS

1 Indigenous peoples of the Plains: their beliefs and ways of life

1a Explain one consequence of the Indian Removal Act of 1830. (4)

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An example of a Level 1 answer

One consequence of the Indian Removal Act was that some Indigenous Americans had to move. Lots of them didn’t want to move but they were forced to by the Indian Removal Act, which said that they had to make way for people who had moved to the United States from Europe.

An example of a Level 2 answer

One consequence of the Indian Removal Act was the death of thousands of Indigenous peoples. This was because the Cherokee and Seminole nations didn’t want to vacate the land and move east, but the US government forcibly marched them from their lands. There are no exact figures for the number of Indigenous peoples who died because of the Indian Removal Act. However, it is believed that around 70,000 to 100,000 Indigenous peoples had left the lands east of the Mississippi and moved to the Plains by 1840.

1b Explain one consequence of the Indian Trade and Intercourse Act of 1834. (4)

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An example of a Level 1 answer

One consequence of the Indian Trade and Intercourse Act was the creation of a frontier. It became known as the Permanent Indian Frontier.

An example of a Level 2 answer

One consequence of the Indian Trade and Intercourse Act was the creation of a frontier between the USA and what was called ‘Indian Territory’ by the US government. The US government wanted to regulate the relationship between US citizens and Indigenous peoples. Most US citizens considered the land beyond what became known as the ‘Permanent Indian Frontier’ as a useless, treeless, waterless desert. When US citizens began migrating west, they had to cross this frontier.

2 Write a narrative account analysing the key events leading up to the establishment of the Permanent Indian Frontier. (8)

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An example of a Level 1 answer

The Permanent Indian Frontier was made because more and more people kept coming to America from Europe. Because of this, the US government moved Indigenous peoples west so that the settlers could have their land in the east. But more and more people kept coming so the US government made a border between the USA and what they called ‘Indian Territory’. The people in the USA didn’t want the land on the other side of the Permanent Indian Frontier anyway; they called that land a desert.

An example of a Level 2 answer

The creation of the Permanent Indian Frontier was the result of several things. Firstly, more and more people kept moving from Europe to the newly independent United States of America. This then led to overcrowding, so people moved onto land that had previously been left to Indigenous peoples. Finally, this led to conflict and demands from US citizens to remove Indigenous peoples because the settlers believed that the land wasn’t being used properly by them.

Because of this, the President of the United States decided to pass the Indian Removal Act (the US government at the time called Indigenous peoples ‘Indians’). This meant that Indigenous peoples could now be moved from where they lived to land that the US citizens didn’t want. As a result, whole Indigenous nations made up of thousands of people were moved from land in the east to the Plains in the west. There were now no Indigenous nations living on US land, so they created a border between the United States and what they called ‘Indian Territory’. This border was called the Permanent Indian Frontier.

An example of a Level 3 answer

One reason why a Permanent Indian Frontier was established was because the population of the United States continued to grow. After the United States achieved independence from Britain in 1776, more settlers from Europe continued to arrive, and the number of US states increased from the original 13 and spread westwards. By 1830, US citizens occupied land that stretched from the east coast to the Mississippi River. Many of these settlers were angry that land in the east was occupied by Indigenous peoples, who did not farm the land; the settlers believed the land was being wasted. As a result of this attitude, President Andrew Jackson passed the Indian Removal Act in 1830. This gave the US government the legal right to remove Indigenous peoples from land in the east in exchange for land on the Plains in the west (land that the US government did not want).

A consequence of this was that there were now no Indigenous nations living within US territory, as they had all been forced to move to the Plains. However, US citizens continued to trade and interact with Indigenous peoples. In 1834, the US government passed the Indian Trade Act to regulate trade with what were legally termed ‘foreign people’.

As a result of this, a border was created between the United States and the Plains. The US government now referred to the Plains as ‘Indian Territory’. Once you crossed this border, you were no longer in the United States, and therefore not subject to US laws and regulations. This border was called the Permanent Indian Frontier. It was the result of increased migration from Europe, an unwillingness to share the land in the east with Indigenous peoples, and the forced expulsion of Indigenous peoples to the Plains.

3 Explain two of the following:

• The importance of the US victory in the Mexican–American War for increasing tension between settlers and Indigenous peoples living on the Plains. (8)
• The importance of the horse to the ways of life of Indigenous peoples living on the Plains. (8)
• The importance of different attitudes towards land for tensions between Indigenous peoples and settlers. (8)

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An example of a Level 1 answer to the first bullet point

The US victory was important because it meant that they had won the war and now had a lot more land for people to move to and farm. Land on the west coast was called California and Oregon. This made Indigenous peoples angry because they didn’t want US citizens to move to and farm the land – they believed that the land should be left as it was.

An example of a Level 2 answer to the first bullet point

Victory for the USA in the Mexican–American War was an important factor in increasing tension between US citizens and Indigenous peoples for the following reasons. Citizens of the USA and Indigenous peoples had very different attitudes towards the land and ownership of the land. Indigenous people wanted to live in harmony with the land and believed that everything in nature had a spirit. US citizens wanted to exploit the land and make as much money out of it as possible. By winning the Mexican–American War, the USA gained a lot more land for its citizens to exploit. This angered Indigenous peoples, especially those living on the west coast, and would cause tension and then conflict between them.

An example of a Level 3 answer to the first bullet point

There are two key reasons why the US victory in the Mexican–American War led to increased tensions between US citizens and Indigenous Americans.

When the USA defeated Mexico in 1848, it gained a huge new territory that previously belonged to Mexico. This land, which was soon to become the states of California and Oregon, was situated on the west coast of the North American continent. This outcome was important in increasing tensions between US citizens and Indigenous Americans because it meant that Indigenous peoples, many of whom had been forced to move to the Plains, now found themselves stuck between US states on both the east and the west coasts. Before the Mexican–American War, it had been rare for US citizens to cross the Permanent Indian Frontier into what was called ‘Indian Territory’. Now, the opening up of the west coast for settlement meant many thousands of US citizens started passing through ‘Indian Territory’ on their way west. Both sides were very suspicious of each other and quick to think the worst whenever there was contact. This increased contact resulted in increased tension between US citizens and Indigenous Americans.

Another reason why tensions increased between US citizens and Indigenous Americans following the US victory in the Mexican–American War was because it led to increasing numbers of US citizens settling on and attempting to farm the Plains themselves. As settlers travelled west along the Oregon and California trails in search of a new life and new opportunities, some decided to farm what they considered unused land on the Plains. However, Indigenous peoples had been moved to and promised this land. The sight of US citizens building sod houses and growing crops on what had been called ‘Indian Territory’ greatly angered many Indigenous peoples and led to increased tension between them and US settlers.

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Relevant points that could be included

• Horses allowed Indigenous peoples to move faster and further than on foot. They could also hunt bison far more effectively on horses than on foot.
• Being a good horseman was an important way for braves to display their skill and bravery. The number of horses owned also indicated the wealth of the tribe or an individual.
• Horses enabled Indigenous peoples on the Plains to be nomadic. As a result, they did not create or live in permanent settlements. This way of life led US citizens to conclude that Indigenous peoples were not using the land to its full potential.

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• Land ownership was a completely alien concept to Indigenous peoples of America. Many didn’t understand how someone could claim to own something that was there before them and would be there after them. Indigenous peoples believed everything in nature had a spirit and was connected to a spirit world. Indigenous peoples tried to live in harmony with rather than own and control the land. US citizens wanted to claim ownership of land and fence it off whenever possible.
• Different attitudes towards land made it difficult for Indigenous peoples to understand the full implications of treaties with the US government that designated ownership of different areas of land to different groups of people.
• Bison needed large areas of land on which to graze and roam. As the US government gradually claimed ownership of different parts of the Plains, and fenced off these areas, it became more and more difficult for the bison herds to survive. Indigenous peoples on the Plains depended on hunting bison to survive. Therefore, the reduction of their herds caused tension between Indigenous peoples and US citizens.

2 Migration and early settlement

1a Explain one consequence of Indigenous peoples of the Plains owning large numbers of horses. (4)

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Relevant point that could be included

• Owning large numbers of horses enabled Indigenous peoples to travel much greater distances across the Plains.

1b Explain one consequence of the differences in the way Indigenous peoples and European settlers thought about land. (4)

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Relevant point that could be included

• Indigenous peoples believed that land cannot be owned whereas European settled wanted to own land, and this led to conflict.

2 Write a narrative account analysing the key events that led to the Donner Party disaster in 1846. (8)

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Relevant points that could be included

• Once they arrived at Little Sandy River, the Donner Party decided to split, with around 80 people joining the Donner brothers on an untried and untested shortcut.
• The slow progress caused by boulders and tree roots on the untried path meant that the party failed to get through the mountains before winter, and heavy snow set in. By setting up camp in the Sierra Nevada with insufficient supplies, starvation was almost inevitable.
• Fifteen members of the Donner Party left the camp in search of help. Four of them soon died and the others resorted to cannibalism to survive. Those they had left behind also ate human remains to prevent starvation. Fewer than 50 of the 80 people in the Donner Party who took the shortcut survived and reached California.

3 Explain two of the following:

• The importance of the discovery of gold in California for the increase in the number of US citizens migrating west. (8)
• The importance of Joseph Smith’s declaration that it was permissible for some Mormon men to have more than one wife for causing the establishment of Salt Lake City. (8)
• The importance of the climate for the struggles that pioneers experienced when settling on the Plains. (8)

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Relevant points that could be included

• Victory for the USA in the Mexican–American War of 1848 resulted in the USA winning territory. This land became the states of California and Oregon.
• John Sutter discovered gold in California in 1848. In 1849, 80,000 people moved to California in search of gold. By 1853, more than 250,000 fortune seekers had arrived from all over the world. Discovering gold was one way to ‘get rich quick’.
• The discovery in 1836 of a safe route through the Rocky Mountains (the Oregon Trail) made the journey to the west coast easier for gold prospectors and encouraged migration.

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• The unpopularity of the Mormons was established before Smith’s declaration about marriage in 1844. Mainstream Christians saw Smith as a blasphemous fraud.
• Joseph Smith declaring that God had told him men could marry more than one woman led to riots. Anger turned to outrage when Smith stated his intention to run for US President. He was shot dead by an angry mob in 1845.
• Smith’s death led Brigham Young to conclude that Mormons and non-Mormons could not live peacefully side by side. Since the inception of the Church of Jesus Christ and the Latter-day Saints in 1820, Mormons had experienced repeated attacks from settlers and were often forced out of the communities where they settled, including Kirtland in Ohio and Independence in Missouri.
• Young identified the Great Salt Lake as being somewhere no one else wanted to live and took the entire Mormon community there to establish a new settlement.

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• Summers on the Plains are very hot, and the winters are very cold.
• Lack of rainfall meant there was not enough water to raise animals or grow crops.
• Lightning strikes started fires in the dry grass, which quickly spread due to the strong winds. These destroyed crops and killed animals.
• The climatic conditions contributed to further difficulties the pioneers faced when settling on the Plains.
• Previously unfarmed soil was thick with tangled grass roots and quickly broke the settlers’ ploughs.
• Grasshopper swarms destroyed crops.
• The lack of trees meant that houses had to be made from earth (sod houses), and crops and animals could not be enclosed or protected by fences.

3 Early settlement: conflict and tension

1a Explain one consequence of the increase in settlers crossing the Plains after 1849. (4)

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Relevant point that could be included

• The increased numbers of settlers crossing the Plains affected the movements of the bison herds as well as other wild animals that Indigenous peoples relied upon as sources of food.

1b Explain one consequence of lawlessness in new settlements established by settlers in the west. (4)

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• US marshals were appointed by the President to maintain law and order in the new territories, and the US marshals appointed deputy marshals. The marshals were poorly paid, many were corrupt, and there weren’t enough of them. This led local residents to take matters into their own hands sometimes.

2 Write a narrative account analysing the key events of the Mormon migrations between 1820 and 1847. (8)

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Relevant points that could be included

• The Mormons moved to Kirtland, Ohio, after being attacked in Palmyra, New York State. They thrived in Kirtland and soon outnumbered the non-Mormon population, who resented their success. Mainstream Christians saw Smith as a blasphemous fraud, which contributed to the Mormons’ unpopularity. When there was an economic depression in 1837, the Mormons were unfairly blamed, attacked, and chased out of town.
• Joseph Smith led the Mormons back east, eventually to a town called Commerce in Illinois. They thrived there, and the population of Mormons grew to 35,000, as more converts continued to arrive from Europe. They built a large temple and renamed the town Nauvoo.
• In 1844, Smith claimed that Mormon men could marry more than one woman. This caused outrage, as did his stated intention to run for President of the USA. Smith was shot dead by an angry mob in 1845 and other Mormons were attacked.
• Brigham Young became the new leader. He believed it was impossible for the Mormons to co-exist with non-believers, and decided to take them west to build a settlement on the Great Salt Lake, because he thought nobody else would want the land there.

3 Explain two of the following:

• The importance of the 1851 Indian Appropriations Act for improving the relationship between Indigenous peoples living on the Plains and settlers moving westwards. (8)
• The importance of the 1851 Fort Laramie Treaty for increasing hostility and resentment between Indigenous Americans and US migrants and settlers. (8)
• The importance of government responses for a reduction in lawlessness in the new settlements in the west. (8)

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Relevant points that could be included

• The Permanent Indian Frontier was a border between the United States and land that the US government considered uninhabitable. Indigenous peoples were left to use this land as they pleased.
• In the 1840s, a growing number of settlers moved both on to and across the Plains. The number of migrants crossing the Plains increased dramatically after the USA won the American–Mexican War in 1848, gaining the states of California and Oregon, and with the discovery of gold in California in 1848.
• The arrival of huge numbers of settlers on the Plains disrupted the movements of the great herds of bison, which Indigenous peoples relied on for survival, and scared away other wild animals they hunted. Indigenous peoples increasingly took to raiding other tribes for scarce resources, and mistrust of and hostility with settlers increased, often leading to bloodshed.
• The Indian Appropriations Act sought to end this conflict by using government money to encourage Indigenous peoples to stay in specific areas, known as reservations, away from the settlers.
• The government used the first available funds from the Indian Appropriations Act to establish the Fort Laramie Treaty of 1851, which aimed to reduce conflict between Indigenous peoples and US migrants and settlers, and increase the safety of settlers moving across the Plains.

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• The 1851 Fort Laramie Treaty aimed to reduce conflict between Indigenous peoples and US migrants and settlers. It also sought to increase the safety of settlers moving across the Plains.
• Indigenous tribes agreed that the US government could build roads and military forts along the trails that crossed the Plains, and railroad surveyors would be provided with safe access. Furthermore, to reduce contact and conflict between Indigenous peoples and US migrants, Indigenous peoples agreed to live and stay within specified territories (reservations). Reservation land would belong to Indigenous tribes permanently.
• The treaty granted the US army access to the Plains. This made US citizens who wanted to cross the Plains feel safer, resulting in a sharp increase in the numbers of migrants and settlers on the Plains. Many Indigenous Americans resented their intrusion on to what previously had been the Permanent Indian Frontier (‘Indian territory’).
• Many Indigenous peoples felt restricted by the living in reservations, where they could no longer follow a nomadic lifestyle. Indigenous peoples who chose to leave their reservation were accused by the US army of breaking the terms of the Fort Laramie Treaty.
• Many Indigenous peoples did not know what the terms of the Fort Laramie Treaty were. They were upset at being forced to stay on reservations and didn’t agree with the building of roads and forts on the Plains.
• Lack of understanding of the terms of the 1851 Fort Laramie Treaty among Indigenous tribes, and upset at how the treaty restricted traditional Indigenous lifestyles, coincided with increased numbers of US migrants and settlers on the Plains. This increased hostility and resentment between Indigenous peoples and US migrants and settlers.

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• The US government responded to lawlessness in the west by appointing US marshals to uphold law and order. The marshals then appointed deputy marshals to help maintain law and order.
• However, some areas that the US marshals had to cover, such as California, were vast territories, thousands of kilometres from the government in Washington. These areas were often too large for US marshals and deputy marshals to cover effectively.
• US marshals and deputy marshals were also poorly paid and therefore easily bribed.
• Local responses to lawlessness were often more important and effective than government responses. These included appointing sheriffs and town marshals, as well as self-appointed vigilantes who issued punishments, including the death penalty, outside of the law. Isolated mining communities also held their own court trials to establish ownership of claims.

4 The development of settlement in the west

1a Explain one consequence of belief in Manifest Destiny by many US citizens. (4)

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Relevant point that could be included

• As a consequence of the belief in Manifest Destiny, many US citizens saw it as their God-given right to seek out and claim free land for themselves, and to populate all of North America. This caused conflict with Indigenous peoples already living there.

1b Explain one consequence of the discovery of gold in California in 1848 for early settlement in the west. (4)

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Relevant point that could be included

• The discovery of gold resulted in increased numbers of settlers crossing the Plains and heading west. This led to increased conflict with Indigenous tribes, which resulted in the establishment of the Indian Appropriations Act and reservations. These in turn opened up the Plains for settlement by US citizens.

2 Write a narrative account analysing the key events leading up to the opening of the First Transcontinental Railroad in 1869. (8)

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Relevant points that could be included

• By the mid-nineteenth century, much of the east coast of America was crisscrossed with railroads. There was a great desire to link the east and west coasts with a railroad, too. When the southern states seceded (left the Union), the remaining northern states passed the Pacific Railroad Act.
• The 1862 Homestead Act encouraged families to set up small farms and stopped rich people from buying huge areas of land. Many thousands of Europeans travelled to the USA and settled on the Plains. However, many of those living on the Plains were incredibly isolated and faced long journeys to the nearest town to buy and sell goods. The development of railroads would relieve the isolation of homesteaders.
• The First Transcontinental Railroad was a massive and expensive undertaking. The government incentivised two companies – the Union Pacific Railroad Company and the Central Pacific Railroad Company – to build the railroad. The companies were lent $16,000 for every mile of track laid and $48,000 for every mile in mountainous areas. They were also given land alongside the tracks to sell.
• The Central Pacific Railroad Company started building at Sacramento and headed east. The Union Pacific Railroad Company started in Omaha and headed west. The two tracks met at Promontory Summit in Utah in 1869.

3 Explain two of the following:

• The importance of the American Civil War for the way the west was settled. (8)
• The importance of the 1862 Homestead Act for the development of settlements in the west. (8)
• The importance of the transcontinental railroad for encouraging settlement on the Plains. (8)

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Relevant points that could be included

• Before the Civil War, the southern states wanted to settle the west with enormous farms, which were worked by enslaved African Americans. These farms were called plantations. The northern states wanted to settle the west with small, family-owned farms.
• Once the southern states had seceded from (left) the Union and formed the Confederacy, the remaining northern states could pass the laws that they wanted. These included the 1862 Homestead Act and the 1862 Pacific Railroad Act.
• The Homestead Act (1862) encouraged families to set up small farms and stopped rich people from buying huge areas of land. The Homestead Act made it easier for ex-Union soldiers and formerly enslaved people to start a new life in the west at the end of the Civil War. Homesteaders took up 6 million acres of the Plains by 1876 and 80 million acres by 1930.
• The Pacific Railroad Act (1862) built a railroad, 3077 km long, from Omaha in the east to Sacramento in California in the west. This made the west more accessible and safer for settlers. Troops could move around more quickly, and law officers could more easily reach isolated settlements. The railroad also made it easier to buy and sell goods.

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• The Homestead Act led to increased settlement because many people living in the east could afford the $10 it cost to claim the 160-acre farms.
• The Act also encouraged many thousands of Europeans to migrate to the USA and settle on the Plains.
• Anybody who was the head of a family or aged over 21, including women and formerly enslaved people, could claim a homestead. However, Indigenous Americans and Confederate soldiers were excluded.
• Over 80 million acres of land was taken up by homesteads by 1930.
• Homesteaders had to work the land for five years and then pay $30 to ‘prove up’ the claim (make it permanent). However, farming the Plains was very difficult, and 60% of homesteaders never ‘proved up’ their claims.

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• The transcontinental railroad made life on the Plains less isolated and therefore more attractive to many settlers. The nearest town could now be reached more quickly, and it was easier to buy and sell goods. For example, goods from the east and the Plains could now be taken to ports in California to be sold in markets in Asia.
• The transcontinental railroad also made the west safer for settlers. Troops could move around more quickly, and law officers could more easily reach isolated settlements.
• The railroad companies used extremely effective marketing techniques to persuade people from Europe to buy the land they had been given alongside the tracks. By 1880, the railroad companies had settled more than 200 million acres in the west.
• Many towns grew around the places where the trains stopped, such as stations and unloading points (railheads).

5 Ranching and the cattle industry

1a Explain one consequence of Texas longhorn cattle spreading ‘Texas fever’ to other livestock in 1853. (4)

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Relevant point that could be included

• The spreading of ‘Texas fever’ by longhorn cattle led to quarantine zones being set up and ranchers being prevented from using the Sedalia Trail.

1b Explain one consequence of the rise of the cattle barons. (4)

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• The rise of the cattle barons led to conflict between the cattle barons and homesteaders. The cattle barons wanted to feed their enormous herds of cattle on public land. However, more and more public land was becoming private due to the 1862 Homestead Act, and homesteaders also wanted to feed their sheep on public land.

2 Write a narrative account analysing the key events in the development of tension between Indigenous Americans and migrants in the 1840s and 1850s. (8)

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• The Gold Rush of 1849 led to a huge increase in the number of settlers travelling across the Plains. They disrupted bison movements and scared away other animals that Indigenous tribes relied on for food. Lack of resources led to increased conflict between Indigenous peoples, as well as between Indigenous peoples and settlers.
• The sight of Indigenous peoples often caused the migrant wagon trains to panic and assume they were under attack. This often led to bloodshed and increasing levels of mistrust and hostility on the Plains.
• The Fort Laramie Treaty of 1851 was an attempt by the US government to protect both Indigenous peoples and migrants on the Plains. Some Indigenous peoples agreed to allow access to migrants and railroad surveyors, and the building of army forts. The government agreed to pay Indigenous people $50,000 a year provided they stayed on the land (reservations) that had been allocated to them.
• However, the Fort Laramie Treaty did not prevent conflict, because:
• many Indigenous peoples did not agree to its terms – for example, restricting Indigenous peoples to one area and surrounding them with roads and forts threatened their nomadic way of life
• many Indigenous peoples did not know of the treaty’s existence and refused to stay on their reservations
• settlers continued to trespass on Indigenous lands.

3 Explain two of the following:

• The importance of the First Transcontinental Railroad for the development of the cattle industry. (8)
• The importance of the development of the open range for changing the cattle industry. (8)
• The importance of the 1862 Homestead Act for creating conflict between cattle ranchers and homesteaders on the Plains. (8)

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• The First Transcontinental Railroad enabled cattle reared in Texas to be transported to the cities in the east, where they would sell for much higher prices.
• This initially led to the Sedalia Trail being created (which ran from Texas to the railroad at Sedalia), until ‘Texas fever’ quarantine rules caused the trail to close.
• The Chisholm trail was then founded, which bypassed the quarantine zones and led to the railroad station in Abilene. The fact that the railroad went through Abilene meant it became the first ‘cow town’. In 1870, around 300,000 cattle travelled through Abilene.
• As the railroad passed through the Plains, John Iliff saw the benefits of raising cattle close to the railroad to avoid ‘driving’ cattle enormous distances from Texas. The railroads led to the creation of the open range on the Plains.

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• Before the open range, cattle had to be driven long distances from Texas and to avoid ‘Texas fever’ quarantine zones. This made it difficult to reach eastern markets.
• John Iliff purchased a small herd of cattle in Colorado. He discovered that the cattle could survive on the Plains and that the cold winters killed off the insects that transmitted ‘Texas fever’. Raising cattle on the open range meant there was no need to pay to feed or drive them – cattle ate the free pasture of the Plains and were rounded up once a year. People began to copy Iliff’s idea.
• ‘Cattle barons’ soon raised enormous herds of cattle on the Plains, causing the role of the cowboy to change significantly. For example, cowboys no longer spent nearly all day in the saddle driving cattle for hundreds of kilometres. Instead, they worked on ranches rounding up and branding cattle. Also, cowboys on ranches worked all year round, rather than only in the summer months during cattle drives. However, fewer cowboys were needed on ranches than on drives, so many cowboys lost their jobs.

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• Cattle barons relied on large areas of public land on which to feed and water their cattle. Cattle were branded with an identifying mark, left to roam free, and then rounded up once a year and taken the short distance to the railroad.
• The Homestead Act meant that more and more public land was falling into private hands. Homesteaders fenced off their land, especially water sources, to protect their property and crops from large herds being raised on the open range. This angered cattle barons, who often had the barbed wire fences cut.
• Homesteaders often raised sheep, which ate the same pasture as the cattle, and some homesteaders raised their own cattle. This led to accusations of theft (rustling) by the barons, who claimed that homesteaders stole cattle before they had been branded.

6 Changes in the ways of life of Indigenous peoples of the Plains

1a Explain one consequence of Red Cloud’s War (1866–68). (4)

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Relevant point that could be included

• Red Cloud’s War forced the US government to admit defeat and negotiate a second Fort Laramie Treaty in 1868.

1b Explain one consequence of Ulysses S. Grant’s Indian Peace Policy of 1869. (4)

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• The effect was limited, because many Indigenous Americans saw the Indian Peace Policy as an attempt to destroy Indigenous culture and ways of life – and they resisted assimilation.

2 Write a narrative account analysing the key events in the development of the cattle industry in the 1860s. (8)

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Relevant points that could be included

• ‘Texas fever’ meant that quarantine zones were set up which prevented cattle from being taken down the Sedalia Trail to the railroad. In 1866, to avoid the quarantine zones, Charles Goodnight and his partner Oliver Loving took their herd west, to Fort Sumner in New Mexico. There, they found new markets for the beef when the US government purchased the cattle to feed soldiers and Indigenous peoples on reservations. This resulted in the establishment of the Goodnight–Loving Trail. In 1868, the Goodnight–Loving Trail was extended north to reach Colorado’s gold-mining towns.
• Joseph McCoy realised huge profits could be made if he could get ranchers to take their cattle down the Chisholm Trail to the railroad at Abilene to be transported east. McCoy built a hotel for the cowboys and stockyards for the cattle, and he spent a lot of money marketing the Chisholm Trail. In 1867, 36,000 cattle were driven down the Chisholm Trail to Abilene. By 1870, over 300,000 cattle made the same journey. Abilene became the first ‘cow town’, and McCoy made a fortune.
• In 1861, John Iliff bought a herd of cattle in Colorado. He realised they could survive the cold winters on the Plains and didn’t need to be driven up from Texas every year. Instead, they could be raised on the open range of the Plains themselves. This meant that cattle did not have to be fed or driven large distances. Iliff soon had 35,000 cattle on the Plains and sold animals to railroad builders, soldiers, and Indigenous peoples. Wealthy and powerful men soon started buying enormous herds to raise on the Plains – these men became the first cattle barons.

3 Explain two of the following:

• The importance of the cattle industry for creating conflict between Indigenous peoples and the US government. (8)
• The importance of gold prospecting for creating conflict between Indigenous peoples and the US government. (8)
• The importance of reservations for causing the ‘Indian Wars’ of the 1860s. (8)

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Relevant points that could be included

• The cattle drives from Texas often crossed land that had been given to Indigenous peoples in treaties. Some Indigenous tribes charged a fee – for example, Indigenous tribes on the Chisholm Trail charged 10 cents for every cow that passed through their land. However, other tribes, such as the Comanche, resented the trespass and attacked the cowboys. Indigenous attacks resulted in the US army retaliating.
• The development of the open range led to enormous numbers of cattle on the Plains. For example, the number of cattle on the Plains increased from 130,000 in 1860 to 4.5 million in 1880. Cattle eat the same food as bison. Without adequate food, bison numbers declined – and Indigenous peoples relied upon bison for their survival.
• Without bison to support them, Indigenous peoples became increasingly dependent on US government funding. When this was delayed or refused, it caused great tension and created conflict.

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• The discovery of gold in the Rocky Mountains in 1859 resulted in more than 100,000 people migrating to Colorado, many of whom trespassed across, built camps on, and started to mine land promised to Indigenous peoples by treaty with the US government. Some prospectors attacked Indigenous peoples; some Indigenous peoples attacked gold miners.
• As a result of this conflict, the Fort Wise Treaty was signed in 1861 between the US government and six Cheyenne and four Arapaho tribes. However, most Cheyenne opposed the treaty, so some conflict between gold prospectors and Indigenous tribes continued.
• After gold was discovered in Montana in 1863, many prospectors took a shortcut from Colorado across Lakota land; the shortcut was known as the Bozeman Trail. The trail broke the terms of the Fort Laramie Treaty of 1851, but the US government did nothing to stop the trespassers. Some Lakota bands started to attack the trespassers.
• In 1866, the Lakota leader Red Cloud entered peace talks with the US government. However, when he discovered that the US army was building forts on the Bozeman Trail, talks ended. Red Cloud surrounded the forts, stopped settlers from using the Bozeman Trail, and united the Lakota, Arapaho, and Cheyenne to fight with him throughout the winter of 1866.
• Red Cloud’s War resulted in the defeat of the US government and army, which led to the second Fort Laramie Treaty of 1868. The US government promised to abandon the forts on the Bozeman Trail, and Red Cloud promised never to lead his men in attacks on settlers again.

Mark scheme for the third bullet point

Relevant points that could be included

• Little Crow’s War was the direct result of the Santee nation’s struggle to survive on reservation land. Around 12,000 Santee lived on a reservation near Minnesota. In 1861, crop failure meant they became reliant on US government payments to survive. In 1862, the American Civil War caused delays to payments to Indigenous tribes from the US government, and the agency store on the reservation refused to sell food to the Santee on credit. The Santee became desperate because they faced starvation, resulting in Little Crow leading the Santee in attacks on agency stores, army forts, and settlers’ towns, with around 700 settlers killed.
• The Sand Creek Massacre of 1864 was in part due to the Cheyenne facing starvation because the Sand Creek reservation was unsuitable for growing crops and there were too few bison to support them. In desperation, the Cheyenne began a three-year campaign of raiding wagon trains and mining camps. Subsequent peace talks between the Cheyenne chief Black Kettle and the US government failed, and 163 Cheyenne men, women, and children were massacred by troops led by Colonel Chivington at Black Kettle’s camp. The Cheyenne, Arapaho, and Lakota retaliated with widespread attacks on ranches and settlements, with many settler families being killed.
• Red Cloud’s War was in part due to gold prospectors trespassing on a Lakota reservation and the government doing nothing to stop the trespassers. The prospectors use of the Bozeman Trail broke the terms of the Fort Laramie Treaty of 1851. This created conflict between people using the trail and Indigenous tribes, and some Lakota bands started to attack the trespassers.

7 Changes in farming, the cattle industry, and settlement, 1876–95

1a Explain one consequence of new farming technologies and new farming methods after 1876. (4)

Mark scheme

Relevant point that could be included

• One consequence of new farming technologies and new farming methods after 1876 was that farming the Plains became easier and more successful. Farmers were able to farm their land more easily, and were able to grow wheat very successfully.

1b Explain one consequence of the winter of 1886–87 for cattle ranching on the Plains. (4)

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Relevant point that could be included

• The very harsh winter of 1886–87 meant that around 30% of the already underfed cattle died on the Plains. This caused many cattle barons to go bankrupt.

2 Write a narrative account analysing the key events of the ‘Indian Wars’ of the 1860s. (8)

Mark scheme

Relevant points that could be included

• The Santee Sioux faced starvation on their reservation. In 1862, four Santee braves attacked and killed five settlers. Little Crow, the Santee leader, then led an attack on the government agency store, killing more than 30 men, women, and children. The US army responded by sending a troop of 45 soldiers; the Santee killed 21 soldiers. Little Crow continued raids on army forts and settlers’ towns, killing around 700 settlers. Little Crow failed to gather support and the Santee were eventually defeated.
• The Cheyenne faced starvation and started raiding wagon trains and mining camps for food. After three years of raids, Black Kettle, a Cheyenne chief, tried to negotiate with the US government. He led his people to Sand Creek where 163 men, women, and children were massacred by Colonel Chivington and his volunteers. The Cheyenne, Arapaho, and Lakota retaliated with widespread attacks on ranches and settlements, killing many settler families.
• Gold prospectors started trespassing across Lakota land, calling it the Bozeman Trail. This broke the terms of the 1851 Fort Laramie Treaty, but the US government took no action. Red Cloud, a Lakota Chief, started peace negotiations with the government but these ended when he discovered the US army was building forts on the trail. Red Cloud then led attacks on the forts and settlers using the trail. Eight US soldiers were killed in an incident known as Fetterman’s Trap, and the trail and forts could no longer be used. By the terms of a second Fort Laramie Treaty, the US government agreed to abandon the forts and create a Great Sioux reservation. In return, Red Cloud agreed to end his attacks.

3 Explain two of the following:

• The importance of the Homestead Act for the development of the Exoduster movement. (8)
• The importance of the development of new technology and techniques for farming on the Plains between 1876 and 1895. (8)
• The importance of barbed wire for the development of ranching on the Plains after the winter of 1886–87. (8)

Mark scheme for the first bullet point

Relevant points that could be included

• The 1862 Homestead Act enabled anybody who was the head of a family or aged over 21, including formerly enslaved people, to claim a homestead – 160 acres of land – for $10.
• After the American Civil War ended in 1865, slavery was banned in the southern states. Many formerly enslaved people still faced prejudice and discrimination in the south. Therefore, the prospect of having 160 acres of their own land was very appealing.
• In 1879, around 43,000 formerly enslaved African Americans left the south and headed west. The majority settled in Kansas, but many settled in other western states and territories, including Oklahoma, Colorado, and Arizona. These settlers became known as the Exodusters.
• The Exoduster movement was supported by Benjamin Singleton, a formerly enslaved African American, a community leader, and businessman. Singleton helped many African Americans living in the south to make the long journey west to Kansas.
• As well as the Homestead Act attracting people, many African Americans were inspired to migrate by a false rumour that the US government had given the whole state of Kansas to people who had once been enslaved.

Mark scheme for the second bullet point

Relevant points that could be included

• Wind pumps became more efficient and reliable and could draw water from many hundreds of metres down.
• Improvements to the ‘sodbuster’ plough made farming dry ground easier. The plough also became more affordable.
• Machinery, such as binders, threshers, and reapers, became more widely available because they were more affordable and because of the railroads.
• The new technique of ‘dry farming’ allowed crops to be grown with far less water being used. This meant wheat could be grown very successfully on the arid Plains.

Mark scheme for the third bullet point

Relevant points that could be included

• With enormous profits to be made, the size of cattle herds on the Plains greatly increased, causing the pastures to be depleted. Large numbers of underfed cattle went into the harsh winter of 1886–87, and around a third of cattle died. As a result of this, cattle barons began to change how they raised cattle. For many, this meant the end of the open range and the beginning of raising smaller herds.
• Barbed wire ensured that herds could be kept in one place and were easier to round up, to bring inside at times of extreme weather.
• Barbed wire made it easier to prevent rustling (theft of cattle) or for calves to be wrongfully claimed before they could be branded.
• Barbed wire meant different breeds of cattle could be kept separate so that higher-quality meat could be produced.

8 Lawlessness and conflict

1a Explain one consequence of gold being discovered in the Black Hills of Montana in 1874. (4)

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Relevant point that could be included

• The Black Hills of Montana were part of a reservation given to the Lakota under the terms of the second Fort Laramie Treaty of 1868. Therefore, the US government offered the Lakota $6 million or $400,000 a year to mine gold discovered in the Black Hills.

1b Explain one consequence of the Battle of the Little Bighorn in 1876. (4)

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Relevant point that could be included

• After Custer was defeated and killed at the Battle of the Little Bighorn in 1876, many US citizens demanded that the army destroy the Lakota as a military force, and the Lakota and Cheyenne were pursued relentlessly.

2 Write a narrative account analysing the key events of the Johnson County War of 1892. (8)

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Relevant points that could be included

• The Wyoming Stock Growers Association (WSGA) was a group of cattle barons who wanted to control all the pasture in Johnson County.
• Homesteaders had moved onto the land and fenced over land and water sources. They also kept small herds of cattle.
• The WSGA members were unhappy about the amount of public land being fenced off by homesteaders. The WSGA also accused homesteaders of rustling their calves before they were branded.
• Homesteaders Ella Watson and Jim Averill were murdered in a conflict over fencing off land and rustling.
• The remaining homesteaders organised an early round up of cattle. The WSGA accused the homesteaders of doing this to steal unbranded cattle; WSGA hired 22 gunmen to kill 70 homesteaders in Johnson County.
• The gunmen were arrested by the sheriff of Johnson County before they could act, but the wealthy WSGA used its power and influence to stop the gunmen from being sent to prison.

3 Explain two of the following:

• The importance of push factors in the 1840s and 1850s for encouraging westward migration. (8)
• The importance of the Oregon and California trails for encouraging westward migration in the 1840s and 1850s. (8)
• The importance of Brigham Young for the successful establishment of a Mormon settlement at the Great Salt Lake. (8)

Mark scheme for the first bullet point

Relevant points that could be included

• The push factors that encouraged westward migration included the economic depression of 1837, which caused many people in the eastern states to lose their jobs in the 1840s. There was not enough work, so people migrated west in the hope of a better life.
• Despite the economic depression, people continued to arrive from Europe, particularly from Germany and Ireland, in increasing numbers. This led to overpopulation in the east, a shortage of land, and even greater competition for jobs. For example, the population of Missouri grew from 14,000 in 1830 to 343,000 in 1840. This increase encouraged many people to migrate west.
• Poverty and overcrowding in the east resulted in deadly outbreaks of cholera and yellow fever. These encouraged people to migrate to the wide-open spaces of the American West.

Mark scheme for the second bullet point

Relevant points that could be included

• The Oregon and California trails were proven and established routes. Many ‘pioneers’ successfully travelled on these trails in the 1840s and 1850s (many also died). The combined length of the Oregon Trail and the California Trail was more than 3800 km.
• The Oregon and California trails were routes through the Rocky Mountains and Sierra Nevada desert to Portland in Oregon and Sacramento in California. They established places to get water and supplies.
• The journey was hazardous, with dangers including sandstorms, snowstorms, torrential rain, swollen rivers, quicksand, stampeding bison, and cholera. Guidebooks were sold that gave people step-by-step instructions on how to travel down the trails.

Mark scheme for the third bullet point

Relevant points that could be included

• Brigham Young was an excellent leader and organiser who was vital to the successful establishment of Salt Lake City. It was Young’s decision to move the Mormons to the Great Salt Lake, after Joseph Smith’s murder and many years of the Mormons experiencing prejudice and discrimination in the east.
• Young ordered the Mormons to spend a winter building wagons and collecting the provisions needed for the trip. He then split the 16,000 Mormons into wagon trains, each with a captain, and then divided each wagon train into ‘tens’, each with its own supervisor. This meant there was never any confusion over who was in charge.
• The first wagon train contained Young and built rest camps along the trail for those who followed. At every camp, people stayed behind to plant crops and build workshops for blacksmiths and carpenters.
• When Young’s wagon train reached the Missouri River in June 1846, it stopped to build Winter Quarters – an encampment containing a thousand cabins in which all the Mormons could shelter throughout the freezing winter months.
• When they reached the Great Salt Lake (2000 km away), Young allocated land to each family and ensured communal irrigation channels provided everyone with enough water.

9 The Indigenous peoples of the Plains: further changes to their ways of life

1a Explain one consequence of the Indian Appropriations Act of 1871. (4)

Mark scheme

Relevant point that could be included

• One consequence of the Indian Appropriations Act 1871 was that Indigenous peoples of America were legally defined as ‘wards of the US government’.

1b Explain one consequence of the Dawes General Allotment Act of 1887. (4)

Mark scheme

Relevant point that could be included

• The Dawes General Allotment Act of 1887 meant that, by 1890, Indigenous peoples owned half the land they had in 1887. The US government reclaimed 90 million acres of land that previously belonged to Indigenous tribes, the majority of which was sold on to non-Indigenous US citizens.

2 Write a narrative account analysing the key events of the Exoduster movement of 1879. (8)

Mark scheme

Relevant points that could be included

• When the American Civil War ended in 1865, the owning of slaves was outlawed in all states. However, many formerly enslaved people continued to face discrimination and persecution in the south, and hoped for a new life elsewhere.
• The 1862 Homestead Act enabled formerly enslaved people to claim a homestead – 160 acres of land – for $10. This inspired many Exodusters to migrate west between 1879 and 1880 – mainly to Kansas, but also to other western states and territories, including Oklahoma, Colorado, and Arizona.
• The Exodusters were named after, and inspired by, the Biblical book of Exodus, which describes how God rescued a whole nation from enslavement, with people walking long distances to freedom.
• Exodusters were also encouraged to migrate west by false rumours that circulated, which claimed the US government had given Kansas to formerly enslaved people.
• Benjamin Singleton, a formerly enslaved African American, community leader, and businessman, helped many Exodusters make the long journey to Kansas. To help Exodusters settle and survive, the Governor of Kansas gave money to the new arrivals – most of whom were very poor and didn’t have money to invest in a farm.
• The Exodusters who settled in Kansas enjoyed fewer rights and were usually poorer than settlers who weren’t formerly enslaved. Many Exodusters faced discrimination in the west by settlers descended from Europeans and struggled to make a success there.

3 Explain two of the following:

• The importance of the railroads for the extermination of the bison herds. (8)
• The importance of the extermination of the bison herds for the destruction of Indigenous peoples’ traditional ways of life. (8)
• The importance of the Dawes General Allotment Act of 1887 for destroying Indigenous peoples’ ways of life. (8)

Mark scheme for the first bullet point

Relevant points that could be included

• In 1840, around 13 million bison lived on the Plains. By 1885, there were just 200.
• The First Transcontinental Railroad was completed in 1869. It ran 3077 km from Omaha in the east to Sacramento in the west.
• To feed the workers laying the tracks, the railroad companies killed enormous numbers of bison.
• The railroads, which were often fenced off, disrupted the migrations of the bison herd to new pastures.
• Tourist trains were run to allow people to shoot bison from the comfort of the railroad carriages. Enormous numbers of bison were killed.

Mark scheme for the second bullet point

Relevant points that could be included

• In 1840, around 13 million bison lived on the Plains. By 1885, there were just 200.
• By destroying the bison herds, Indigenous peoples could not easily leave the reservations and return to their nomadic ways of life, and so they were forced to take up farming.
• Many Indigenous peoples on the Plains had no heritage of farming. They were nomadic people who travelled in search of bison herds.
• When farming failed, with no bison to hunt, Indigenous peoples became reliant on the US government for food and money.
• Indigenous braves were no longer able to hunt bison. The loss of this traditional role of hunter contributed to the cultural demoralisation of the Indigenous tribes.
• The extermination of the bison herds meant Indigenous tribes became dependent on US government handouts to survive. This meant the US government had more control over the Indigenous peoples and could pressure them to accept assimilation.

Mark scheme for the third bullet point

Relevant points that could be included

• The Dawes General Allotment Act of 1887 meant that the reservations, which had once belonged to whole Indigenous communities, were broken into individual family plots of 160 acres, and plots of 80 acres for individuals without families.
• As a result of the Dawes Act, land that had belonged to entire nations was now the property of private individuals. Private land ownership was not traditional to Indigenous ways of life. It ended traditional tribal structures, stopping Indigenous peoples from consulting with chiefs or councils.
• Many Indigenous peoples struggled to make a success of farming, often because the land they had been given was of poor quality, and because they were inexperienced in ranching and agriculture.
• The Dawes Act enabled people to sell their land. Many Indigenous people sold their allotment of land as soon as they could, and many were tricked into selling it for a very low price. This reduced the amount of land in the hands of Indigenous peoples. By 1890, Indigenous peoples owned half the land they had in 1887. This further reduced the possibility that Indigenous tribes could return to their traditional, nomadic lifestyles.