America, 1920–1973: Opportunity and inequality: Answers

1 The ‘Boom’

Read Interpretations A and B.

1 How does Interpretation B differ from Interpretation A about the Ford Motor Company? Explain your answer based on what it says in Interpretations A and B.(4)

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An example of a Level 1 answer

Interpretation A suggests that Henry Ford made life in America worse for the ‘ordinary’ worker, whereas Interpretation B implies that, by inventing the Model T, he made life better for ‘ordinary’ people.

An example of a Level 2 answer

Interpretation A suggests that the Ford Motor Company was a terrible place to work. Workers had very few rights and could be fired or beaten up if they talked to each other. Interpretation B, however, implies that the Ford Motor Company had a liberating effect on ‘ordinary’ people across America because they could afford to buy a car (a Ford Model T) for the first time.

2 Why might the authors of Interpretations A and B have a different interpretation about the Ford Motor Company? Explain your answer using Interpretations A and B and your contextual knowledge. (4)

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An example of a Level 1 answer

The author of Interpretation A was a journalist who specialised in writing about the ways working people were treated badly by the companies they worked for, so he is sharing information about the Ford Motor Company that reflects badly on the people running the company. The author of Interpretation B was an Englishman who moved to America. He tended to present America positively for a British audience, and so he is talking very warmly about the positive impact of the Ford Model T car without considering any negative impacts.

An example of a Level 2 answer

The author of Interpretation A was a journalist who specialised in writing about the ways working people were treated badly by the companies they worked for. Once he had heard about what was happening at the Ford Motor Company, he would have wanted to share it so that it reflected badly on the people running the company. By calling some of the people who worked at the factory Stormtroopers, he is suggesting that working at the factory is like living in Nazi Germany. He probably hoped that writing about what was happening would improve working conditions.

In contrast, the author of Interpretation B was an Englishman who moved to America. He tended to present America positively for a British audience, and so he is talking very warmly about the positive impact of the Ford Model T car on the people of America. He either didn’t know or didn’t want to write about how the freedom experienced by people who bought a car came at the expense of the people working for the Ford Motor Company.

3 Which interpretation gives the more convincing opinion about the Ford Motor Company? Explain your answer based on your contextual knowledge and what it says in Interpretations A and B. (8)

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An example of a Level 1 answer

Interpretation A is more convincing because it is about the working conditions in Ford Motor Company factories and was written by someone who specialised in investigating the experiences of working people across America.

An example of a Level 2 answer

Interpretation A is more convincing because it is about the working conditions in Ford Motor Company factories and was written by someone who specialised in investigating the experiences of working people across America. I also know that Henry Ford was criticised for the brutal way he cracked down on workers who wanted to improve their working conditions.

An example of a Level 3 answer

Interpretation A is more convincing because it is about the working conditions in Ford Motor Company factories and was written by someone who specialised in investigating the experiences of working people across America. I also know that Henry Ford was criticised for the brutal way he cracked down on workers who wanted to improve their working conditions. Statements such as ‘Workers seen talking together are taken off the assembly line and fired’ support this.

Interpretation B is less convincing because it presents an ideal and romantic view of America. I think it is an exaggeration to suggest that all ‘ordinary’ people could now go on holiday. Unskilled workers were paid low wages, many African-American and Indigenous Americans were living in poverty, and many American farmers were also struggling.

An example of a Level 4 answer

Interpretation A is convincing because it is about the working conditions in Ford Motor Company factories and was written by someone who specialised in investigating the experiences of working people across America. I also know that Henry Ford was criticised for the brutal way he cracked down on workers who wanted to improve their working conditions. Statements such as ‘Workers seen talking together are taken off the assembly line and fired’ support this. However, Interpretation A could be less convincing because it uses very emotive language. It is probably an exaggeration to suggest that working in a Ford Motor Company factory was like working in Nazi Germany.

It is possible to argue that Interpretation B is less convincing because it presents an ideal and romantic view of America. I think it is an exaggeration to suggest that all ‘ordinary’ people could now go on holiday. Unskilled workers were paid low wages, most African-American and Indigenous Americans were living in poverty, and many American farmers were also struggling. However, it is true that many more people were able to buy a car after the Model T was launched: 15 million Model Ts had been sold by 1929, and, by the late 1920s, one in every two cars on America’s roads was a Ford. It is also true that people with cars could now travel wherever they wanted and whenever they chose.

Both Interpretation A and Interpretation B provide convincing opinions, but I think Interpretation B is more convincing because, despite the fact that it is very romantic, it demonstrates the huge impact the Ford Motor Company had on America. This is evident not only in the freedom the Model T brought to many people but also in the way the principles of mass production and the assembly line developed as the company spread to other industries.

4 Describe two problems faced by American farmers in the 1920s. (4)

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An example of a Level 1 answer

One problem American farmers faced in the 1920s was that new high-tech farm machinery meant more food was being produced than people in America could buy. A lot of crops went unsold.

An example of a Level 2 answer

One problem American farmers faced in the 1920s was that new high-tech farm machinery meant more food was being produced than people in America could buy. A lot of crops went unsold. This was a problem because farmers were unable to repay the loans they had taken out to buy the machinery in the first place.

Another problem faced by American farmers in the 1920s was that, after the Second World War, the demand in Europe for crops grown by American farmers declined, and some countries imposed import duties on American produce. This was a problem because it reduced the markets available to American farmers and many were forced out of business.

5 In what ways were the lives of Americans affected by the growth in consumer society in the 1920s? Explain your answer. (8)

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An example of a Level 1 answer

The growth in consumer society in the 1920s affected Americans’ lives because there were many new products, such as vacuum cleaners, washing machines, and refrigerators, to buy.

An example of a Level 2 answer

The growth in consumer society in the 1920s affected Americans’ lives because there were many new products, such as vacuum cleaners, washing machines, and refrigerators, to buy. In 1916, only 15 per cent of American homes had electricity, but, by 1927, 70 per cent of American homes had electricity. This led to a huge demand for new electric-powered gadgets, such as vacuum cleaners and washing machines. For example, for every refrigerator in 1920, there were 167 by 1929.

An example of a Level 3 answer

The growth in consumer society in the 1920s affected Americans’ lives because there were many new products, such as vacuum cleaners, washing machines, and refrigerators, to buy. In 1916, only 15 per cent of American homes had electricity, but, by 1927, 70 per cent of American homes had electricity. This led to a huge demand for new electric-powered gadgets, such as vacuum cleaners and washing machines. For example, for every refrigerator in 1920, there were 167 by 1929.

The demand for consumer goods was powered by new advertising techniques. Adverts on enormous billboards, in newspapers, magazines and cinemas, and on the radio encouraged people to buy the latest products. Catalogues enabled people who lived far away from towns to buy everything, from coffee cups to tractors, and have it delivered to their door. Hire purchase plans also made it easier to buy goods, enabling people to ‘buy now, pay later’.

An example of a Level 4 answer

The growth in consumer society in the 1920s affected Americans’ lives because there were many new products, such as vacuum cleaners, washing machines, and refrigerators, to buy. In 1916, only 15 per cent of American homes had electricity, but, by 1927, 70 per cent of American homes had electricity. This led to a huge demand for new electric-powered gadgets, such as vacuum cleaners and washing machines. For example, for every refrigerator in 1920, there were 167 by 1929.

The demand for consumer goods was powered by new advertising techniques. Adverts on enormous billboards, in newspapers, magazines and cinemas, and on the radio encouraged people to buy the latest products. Catalogues enabled people who lived far away from towns to buy everything, from coffee cups to tractors, and have it delivered to their door. Hire purchase plans also made it easier to buy goods, enabling people to ‘buy now, pay later’.

The growth in consumer society created a cycle of prosperity for many. Mass production meant goods could be made a lot cheaper. More people could afford to buy goods. More people were employed to make these goods. And people spent their wages on more goods. However, not everyone experienced this cycle of prosperity. Around 42 per cent of people in America lived on less than $1,000 a year. Unskilled workers were paid low wages to work in factories. African-American labourers and sharecroppers who travelled to the cities to find work discovered that many factories operated racist ‘whites-only’ policies. Most Indigenous Americans also lived in extreme poverty in the late 1920s.

6 Which of the following had more impact on American society in the 1920s:

• mass production
• Republican government policies?

Explain your answer with reference to both bullet points. (12)

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An example of a Level 1 answer

Mass production had a huge impact on American society in the 1920s. It fuelled a huge growth in the sale of consumer goods and created a cycle of prosperity for many.

An example of a Level 2 answer

Mass production had a huge impact on American society in the 1920s. It fuelled a huge growth in the sale of consumer goods and created a cycle of prosperity for many. For example, using an assembly line to mass produce Model T cars meant the price of a Model T fell from $800 in 1911 to just $295 in 1928. As a result, 15 million Model Ts had been sold by 1929. The principles of mass production and the assembly line soon spread, and lots of other goods were made more quickly and more cheaply. Many more people could buy radios, vacuum cleaners, and washing machines.

An example of a Level 3 answer

Mass production had a huge impact on American society in the 1920s. It fuelled a huge growth in the sale of consumer goods and created a cycle of prosperity for many. For example, using an assembly line to mass produce Model T cars meant the price of a Model T fell from $800 in 1911 to just $295 in 1928. As a result, 15 million Model Ts had been sold by 1929. The principles of mass production and the assembly line soon spread, and lots of other goods were made more quickly and more cheaply. Many more people could buy radios, vacuum cleaners, and washing machines.

Republican government policies also had a big impact on American society in the 1920s, because the laissez-faire approach of Republican presidents supported the economic ‘Boom’. For example, the Fordney-McCumber Tariff Act of 1922 made foreign-made goods more expensive, so people bought more American goods, increasing the profits American companies made and creating more American jobs. Republican governments also kept taxes low. Republicans believed that if rich people and companies kept more of their money, they would use it to start new companies and create new jobs, and that if people had more money in their pockets, they would have more money to spend on American-made goods.

An example of a Level 4 answer

Mass production had a huge impact on American society in the 1920s. It fuelled a huge growth in the sale of consumer goods and created a cycle of prosperity for many. For example, using an assembly line to mass produce Model T cars meant the price of a Model T fell from $800 in 1911 to just $295 in 1928. As a result, 15 million Model Ts had been sold by 1929. The principles of mass production and the assembly line soon spread and lots of other goods were made more quickly and more cheaply. Many more people could buy radios, vacuum cleaners, and washing machines.

Republican government policies also had a big impact on American society in the 1920s, because the laissez-faire approach of Republican presidents supported the economic ‘Boom’. For example, the Fordney-McCumber Tariff Act of 1922 made foreign-made goods more expensive, so people bought more American goods, increasing the profits American companies made and creating more American jobs. Republican governments also kept taxes low. Republicans believed that if rich people and companies kept more of their money, they would use it to start new companies and create new jobs, and that if people had more money in their pockets, they would have more money to spend on American-made goods.

While both mass production and Republican government policies had a significant impact on American society in the 1920s, mass production had the greater impact. Republican government policies created an environment in which American businesses could flourish, enabling people to buy American-made goods and ensuring they had as much money in their pockets as possible to do so. However, Americans would not have been able to buy cheap goods in such large numbers if it hadn’t been for the development of mass production, and techniques like the assembly line.

2 Social and cultural developments in the 1920s

Read Interpretations A and B.

1 How does Interpretation B differ from Interpretation A about life in America in the 1920s? Explain your answer based on what it says in Interpretations A and B.(4)

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Relevant points that could be included

• Interpretation A describes life in America in the 1920s as a time of hunger and poverty.
• Interpretation B describes life in America in the 1920s as a time of partying and excess, which started with the younger generation and quickly spread to older people too.

2 Why might the authors of Interpretations A and B have a different interpretation about life in America in the 1920s? Explain your answer using Interpretations A and B and your contextual knowledge. (4)

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Relevant points that could be included

• The author of Interpretation A was Black and he experienced extreme poverty during his childhood in the South of the USA in the 1920s. Like the author of Interpretation B, he describes the life he knew, but it was a life filled with hunger, not a life filled with parties.
• The author of Interpretation A was a famous, rich, white novelist who wrote about the life he knew: a life of partying and excess. He experienced everything positive the ‘Boom’ had to offer.

3 Which interpretation gives the more convincing opinion about life in America in the 1920s? Explain your answer based on your contextual knowledge and what it says in Interpretations A and B. (8)

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Relevant points that could be included

• Interpretation A is convincing because it describes how African-American farm labourers and sharecroppers were already desperately poor (‘hunger had already been more or less at my elbow’) and were then hit particularly hard by the challenges facing the farming industry in the 1920s (‘but now I began to wake up at night to find hunger standing at my bedside’).
• Interpretation B is convincing because it refers to flappers, who became a common sight in cities across the USA. They drove fast cars, wore short skirts, and had a ‘live fast, die young’ attitude, living the kind of life described in Interpretation B.
• The author of Interpretation B is talking about a group of people, but he could not have known everyone he was writing about. In contrast, the author of Interpretation A is writing about his personal experiences. This means Interpretation A could be viewed as more convincing.

4 Describe two changes to the way Americans spent their leisure time in the 1920s. (4)

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Relevant points that could be included

• New and sometimes strange pastimes suddenly became very popular in the 1920s; for example, mahjong, crosswords, marathon dancing, and pole sitting.
• The movie industry really took off in the 1920s; for example, weekly cinema audiences trebled from 25 million in 1919 to 100 million in 1930, the introduction of the star system, and the development from silent movies to ‘talkies’.

5 In what ways were the lives of Americans affected by Republican government policies in the 1920s? Explain your answer. (8)

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Relevant points that could be included

• The Republican governments in the 1920s kept taxes low. This meant that Americans had more money in their pockets than they would have done if taxes were high. This, in turn, supported the growth of the consumer society.
• The Fordney-McCumber Tariff Act was passed by a Republican government in 1922. The Act placed import tariffs on goods imported into the USA, and people chose to buy cheaper American-made goods rather than more expensive foreign-made goods. This increased the profits of American companies and created more American jobs.
• The laissez-faire approach of Republican presidents meant they didn’t tackle the huge inequalities that developed during the ‘Boom’ of the 1920s. On the one hand, some people became very rich, but, in contrast, 42 per cent of people lived on less than $1,000 a year.

6 Which of the following was the more important reason why there was an economic ‘Boom’ in America in the 1920s:

• advertising and hire purchase plans
• mass production?

Explain your answer with reference to both bullet points. (12)

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Relevant points that could be included

• New advertising techniques persuaded people to buy more goods and hire purchase plans helped people buy more goods by making them more affordable. Together, they helped fuel the growth in the sale of consumer goods, which was at the heart of the ‘Boom’ in 1920s America.
• Mass production meant that goods could be made more quickly and cheaply than before. For example, the price of a Model T, which was mass-produced on a production line, fell from $800 in 1911 to just $295 in 1929. Therefore, mass production also fuelled the growth in the sale of consumer goods, which was at the heart of the ‘Boom’.
• Both advertising/hire purchase plans and mass production were an important part of the cycle of prosperity in 1920s America.
• However, the development of mass production was the more important reason for the economic ‘Boom’. Without lots of consumer goods being made more cheaply, the cycle of prosperity would not have begun, and the new advertising techniques and hire purchase plans might never have been developed.

3 Divided society

Read Interpretations A and B.

1 How does Interpretation B differ from Interpretation A about the Ku Klux Klan in the early 1920s? Explain your answer based on what it says in Interpretations A and B. (4)

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Relevant points that could be included

• Interpretation A says that the Ku Klux Klan grew in popularity in the early 1920s because of immigration, because ‘old stick Americans’ believed they were in danger of being overrun by immigrants.
• Interpretation B says that the Ku Klux Klan grew in popularity in the early 1920s because white people were afraid that African-Americans, and African-American men in particular, would attack them.

2 Why might the authors of Interpretations A and B have a different interpretation of the Ku Klux Klan in the early 1920s? Explain your answer using Interpretations A and B and your contextual knowledge. (4)

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Relevant points that could be included

• The author of Interpretation A was Catholic, and his family was targeted by the Ku Klux Klan (KKK). Although he was born in Kokomo, it is likely that his family were European immigrants, and so he links the growth of the KKK with anti-immigrant feelings.
• The author of Interpretation B was from a wealthy family that had been slaveholders. She believed African-Americans would take revenge on former slaveholders and saw the KKK as an organisation that would save her from attack.

3 Which interpretation gives the more convincing opinion about the Ku Klux Klan in the early 1920s? Explain your answer based on your contextual knowledge and what it says in Interpretations A and B. (8)

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Relevant points that could be included

• Interpretation A is convincing because it describes how the Ku Klux Klan (KKK) disliked immigrants. It says that the KKK thought ‘foreigners were ruining the country’, and the members of the KKK did turn on Catholics and immigrant communities as they looked for someone to blame for the poverty they were experiencing.
• Interpretation B is convincing because it describes how the movie The Birth of a Nation presented members of the KKK as heroic. Although membership of the KKK was fading towards the end of the nineteenth century, the movie sparked a major revival when it came out in 1915.
• Both Interpretation A and Interpretation B talk about the authors’ own experiences, which makes them both convincing. However, Interpretation B could be viewed as more convincing because we know that the KKK primarily targeted African-Americans and it explains one reason why.

4 Describe two problems faced by people trying to enforce Prohibition in America in the 1920s. (4)

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Relevant points that could be included

• There were not enough Prohibition agents to enforce the law. Although the number of agents had increased to 3,000 by 1930, this was not enough to patrol 18,600 miles of coastline and land borders.
• There was a huge demand for alcohol. People went to speakeasies to drink alcohol smuggled into America from abroad by bootleggers, and people also drank moonshine.

5 In what ways did the lives of American women change during the Roaring Twenties? Explain your answer. (8)

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Relevant points that could be included

• American women were given the right to vote in 1920 and, by 1929, 25 per cent more women had jobs. Women with money of their own were more independent than they had been previously and were able to make their own decisions about how to live; for example, the divorce rate doubled in the 1920s.
• Some white, wealthy middle- and upper-class women from the northern states became known as ‘flappers’ during the 1920s. They rejected the restricted lives women like them had lived before the First World War and, instead, drove cars, went to nightclubs with men, and wore short skirts.
• Life did not change very much for most women, particularly working-class women. Just as they had before the First World War, they raised their families and worked long hours at low-skilled jobs like cleaning. They continued to have fewer opportunities than men and, in most cases, continued to be paid less than men for doing the same job.

6 Which of the following had more impact on American society in the 1920s:

• the cycle of prosperity
• more leisure time?

Explain your answer with reference to both bullet points. (12)

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Relevant points that could be included

• The cycle of prosperity created an economic boom in America in the 1920s. This had a big impact on American society, changing the lives of millions of Americans. For example, in 1916, only 15 per cent of American homes had electricity but, by 1927, 70 per cent of American homes had electricity. This led to a huge demand for new electric-powered gadgets.
• More leisure time also had a big impact on American society, as people could enjoy themselves in a variety of new ways. There were new crazes, sports people became celebrities, jazz and jazz musicians became popular, and weekly cinema audiences increased from 35 million in 1919 to over 100 million by 1930.
• Both the cycle of prosperity and more leisure time played a role in creating the Roaring Twenties.
• However, the cycle of prosperity had more impact on American society in the 1920s than more leisure time. Without the money in their pockets created by the cycle of prosperity, many Americans would not have been able to afford to devote time and money to having fun.

4 American society during the Depression

Read Interpretations A and B.

1 How does Interpretation B differ from Interpretation A about the Depression? Explain your answer based on what it says in Interpretations A and B. (4)

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Relevant points that could be included

• Interpretation A suggests that the impact of the Depression was exaggerated because unemployment was less than 20 per cent at its highest and many people were unaffected.
• Interpretation B suggests that life was very hard during the Depression; that it was hard to find work, especially if you were African-American, and people had to beg for food.

2 Why might the authors of Interpretations A and B have a different interpretation of the Depression? Explain your answer using Interpretations A and B and your contextual knowledge. (4)

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Relevant points that could be included

• The author of Interpretation A was a psychiatrist who was paid by wealthy people to treat them. He earned $2,000 a month between 1931 and 1934, and so it isn’t surprising that he suggests that the impact of the Depression was exaggerated.
• The author of Interpretation B was unemployed and starving. He ‘begged for money to get something to eat’ and experienced racism when he tried to find work.

3 Which interpretation gives the more convincing opinion about the Depression? Explain your answer based on your contextual knowledge and what it says in Interpretations A and B. (8)

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Relevant points that could be included

• Interpretation A is convincing because Dr David J. Rossman’s account is not based purely on his memories. He refers to a handbook where he recorded what he earned each month between 1931 and 1934 and says that ‘in those days I was making $2,000 a month, which was a hell of a lot of money’.
• Interpretation B is convincing because we know a lot about the extreme poverty people experienced during the Depression. Like Louis Banks, some unemployed people became hobos and travelled the country looking for work. Banks talks about begging for money to buy food, but many people relied on food from soup kitchens.
• Interpretation B could be viewed as more convincing, because we know a lot more about the people who suffered during the Depression than the people who thrived. The shock waves of the Wall Street Crash of 1929 were felt throughout America; for example, the experiences of farmers, business owners and their workers.

4 Describe two problems immigrants arriving in America in the 1920s hoped to escape. (4)

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Relevant points that could be included

• Many European towns and cities were overcrowded, and land was in short supply. In contrast, America had millions of acres of cheap, fertile farmland to buy.
• In the early 1900s, most people in Europe lived in poverty. In contrast, pay and conditions were better in America: in 1920, the US government announced that American workers earned twice as much as workers in other countries.

5 In what ways were the lives of Americans affected by communism and anarchism in the 1920s? Explain your answer. (8)

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Relevant points that could be included

• Many Americans feared that communists were a threat to the American way of life. They feared that a revolution like the Russian Revolution could happen; they were worried when the American Communist Party was set up; and the fear increased further when Alexander Mitchell Palmer’s home was bombed, and Palmer claimed to have uncovered communist plots to launch terror attacks.
• In reality, there was very little to fear from communists in America. For example, during the ‘Palmer Raids’, 6,000 suspected communists were arrested but police found no explosives and only three pistols.
• Many Americans felt they had good reason to fear anarchists: in 1901, an anarchist assassinated US President William McKinley.
• The case of Sacco and Vanzetti, two Italian-born anarchists, illustrates just how intolerant American society had become. However, many historians believe this intolerance was directed more towards immigrants rather than anarchists.
• Both communism and anarchism argue for a very different way of life to the American way of life. Fear of communism particularly deeply affected the lives of many Americans, but America was never in danger of becoming communist or anarchist.

6 Which of the following had more impact on the American economy in 1929:

• overproduction
• the stock market?

Explain your answer with reference to both bullet points. (12)

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Relevant points that could be included

• By 1929, American factories were overproducing, and American businesses were struggling to sell their goods abroad because foreign governments had placed tariffs on US-made goods in response to the Fordney-McCumber Tariff Act. American companies’ profits began to fall.
• The stock market was booming during the 1920s and, by 1929, over 20 million Americans owned shares. When investors started to worry that a drop in profits caused by overproduction would lead to a drop in dividends, they started to sell their shares. This triggered the ‘Wall Street Crash’ which, in turn, triggered the Depression.
• Both overproduction and the stock market played a significant role in causing the Depression.
• It can be argued that overproduction had the biggest impact on the American economy in 1929 because it started the chain reaction. However, it can also be argued that the stock market had the biggest impact on the American economy in 1929, because the impact of overproduction would have been relatively limited if millions of Americans hadn’t bought shares on the market.

5 The effectiveness of the New Deal

Read Interpretations A and B.

1 How does Interpretation B differ from Interpretation A about the New Deal? Explain your answer based on what it says in Interpretations A and B. (4)

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Relevant points that could be included

• Interpretation A describes the New Deal very positively, explaining how important it was for the majority of people (for ‘the forgotten man, the little man’) who were desperate during the Depression.
• Interpretation B describes the New Deal as a huge waste of money, and claims that it centralised power in the hands of the president and did not end the Depression.

2 Why might the authors of Interpretations A and B have a different interpretation about the New Deal? Explain your answer using Interpretations A and B and your contextual knowledge. (4)

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Relevant points that could be included

• The author of Interpretation A was loyal to Roosevelt, who came up with the idea of the New Deal. She worked as his Secretary for Labour for his entire presidency and is, therefore, highly likely to be biased towards the New Deal.
• Herbert Hoover wrote Interpretation B. He was the US President before Roosevelt defeated him in the 1932 presidential election. Roosevelt’s optimism and the New Deal caught the public’s imagination during the election campaign and contributed significantly to Hoover’s defeat.

3 Which interpretation gives the more convincing opinion about the New Deal? Explain your answer based on your contextual knowledge and what it says in Interpretations A and B. (8)

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Relevant points that could be included

• Interpretation A is convincing because it talks about how the New Deal helped the majority of Americans who were not rich, and the New Deal certainly focused on solutions to problems that affected lots of people. For example, the nearly $1 billion saved by the Economy Act was used to help unemployed people. The Alphabet Agencies also helped a wide range of people.
• Interpretation B is convincing because it says that the Second World War, and not the New Deal, brought an end to huge unemployment in America, and it is certainly true that millions of Americans continued to live in poverty throughout the 1930s. Also, unemployment never fell below 10 per cent in the 1930s, and it started rising again after 1937.
• Both interpretations are convincing, but it is possible to argue that Interpretation A is slightly more convincing because, although the New Deal has always divided opinion, it did achieve some successes. For example, there is no doubt that the Alphabet Agencies created jobs.

4 Describe two problems faced by American farmers during the Depression. (4)

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Relevant points that could be included

• Unemployed people bought less food, so the price of food fell. As a result, many farmers couldn’t pay their mortgages and one in twenty had been evicted by 1932.
• A drought on the Plains combined with unsustainable farming methods led to millions of acres of dry topsoil being blown away. Many farmers had to flee the Dust Bowl to try to find work on fruit farms in California and Oregon.

5 In what ways were the lives of Americans affected by the Alphabet Agencies in the 1930s? Explain your answer. (8)

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Relevant points that could be included

• The government created jobs through the Alphabet Agencies. For example, the FCA and the AAA helped farmers; the NRA, the HOLC, and the TVA helped industry and workers; and the CCC, the CWA, and the FERA helped the unemployed and homeless. These newly created jobs helped reduce unemployment between 1933 and 1937.
• The Alphabet Agencies did little to reduce the discrimination experienced by women and by African-Americans. For example, the NRA set wages for women lower than wages for men, and CCC campsites were segregated.
• Many wealthy people and businesses did not like the Alphabet Agencies. The wealthy thought it was a waste of their money for, for example, the CCC to pay people to plant trees and clear footpaths. Many businesses disliked the way the government used the Alphabet Agencies to interfere with their ability to make money.
• The Alphabet Agencies were very expensive. When Roosevelt cut the amount spent on his New Deal programmes, unemployment jumped by 3 million. This shows both how essential they were (they provided much-needed jobs) and how much of a burden they were for taxpayers (wealthy people were particularly upset about having to pay more taxes).

6 Which of the following had more impact on discrimination against newly arrived immigrants in the 1920s:

• religious and economic reasons
• communism and anarchism?

Explain your answer with reference to both bullet points. (12)

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Relevant points that could be included

• Many of the immigrants who arrived in America in the 1880s were from southern and eastern European countries. Unlike many established immigrants, many of these ‘new immigrants’ were Catholic or Jewish. Often, they couldn’t speak English well, and had unfamiliar traditions that made them targets for discrimination.
• Many newly arrived immigrants were desperate for work. They worked any job they could find, for very low wages. As a result, the existing population accused them of stealing jobs and undercutting wages.
• Many Americans were fearful of communism and anarchism, and this fear caused discrimination towards immigrants. For example, the 1.5 million Russians who moved to the USA during the early part of the twentieth century were suspected of being communists., Historians see the case of Sacco and Vanzetti as an example of just how intolerant American society had become of immigrants by the 1920s.
• Religious and economic reasons and fear of communism and anarchism all drove discrimination against newly arrived immigrants in the 1920s. However, religious and economic reasons likely had a more significant impact because they affected more immigrants. Yet, when experienced, discrimination against communists and anarchists was likely to have more severe consequences.

6 The impact of the Second World War

Read Interpretations A and B.

1 How does Interpretation B differ from Interpretation A about American women and the Second World War? Explain your answer based on what it says in Interpretations A and B. (4)

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Relevant points that could be included

• Interpretation A suggests that the Second World War opened up work opportunities for American women, and that the work they did during the war provided them with opportunities after the war to do work they never thought they would do before the war.
• Interpretation B suggests that the Second World War gave women opportunities to learn new skills, but women weren’t welcome in the workforce after the war and were frequently discriminated against in favour of men.

2 Why might the authors of Interpretations A and B have a different interpretation about American women and the Second World War? Explain your answer using Interpretations A and B and your contextual knowledge. (4)

Mark scheme

Relevant points that could be included

• The author of Interpretation A celebrates women’s achievements during the Second World War. She also writes about women’s experiences as a group, arguing that the collective achievements of American women during the Second World War changed American society.
• The author of Interpretation B is describing her own personal experiences. While other people may have discovered more work opportunities after the Second World War, she did not, and she is writing about her frustrations about this injustice.

3 Which interpretation gives the more convincing opinion about American women and the Second World War? Explain your answer based on your contextual knowledge and what it says in Interpretations A and B. (8)

Mark scheme

Relevant points that could be included

• Interpretation A is convincing because it is an opinion based on conversations with 55 American women who worked during the Second World War, and the number of women in the workforce rose from 12 million to nearly 19 million between 1940 and 1945.
• Interpretation B is convincing because women worked in factories, railways, and shipyards during the Second World War and would have become highly skilled workers. Then, after the war, job opportunities for women tended to be limited to ‘female occupations’ like nursing and secretarial work.
• Interpretation B can be viewed as more convincing, because it is better supported by evidence of what life was like for women in 1950s America. After the war, millions of women returned to being housewives, and the wages of women who did work fell from two-thirds of men’s wages during the war to 53 per cent of men’s wages in the 1950s.

4 Describe two problems tackled by Roosevelt when he became president in March 1933. (4)

Mark scheme

Relevant points that could be included

• People no longer saw banks as safe places to keep their money. Roosevelt introduced the Emergency Banking Act in 1933, which closed all banks for four days so they could be inspected. Only well-run banks with enough money were allowed to reopen.
• People were fed up with the problems caused by Prohibition: the gangsters, the killings, and the corrupt police. Roosevelt introduced the Beer Act, making it legal to make and sell alcohol again.

5 In what ways were the lives of people living in America affected by the Second World War? Explain your answer. (8)

Mark scheme

Relevant points that could be included

• The Second World War helped the American economy recover from the Depression, which improved the lives of most Americans. For example, unemployment fell because men joined the armed forces or took extra jobs in factories, and farmers prospered because food was needed to feed the armed forces and to export abroad.
• The lives of African-Americans improved somewhat as a result of the Second World War. For example, Roosevelt set up the Fair Employment Practice Committee and, as a result, some companies improved their policies towards Black workers. For example, as the war went on and the demand for troops increased, racial barriers in the armed forces began to break down.
• Women’s lives changed considerably during the Second World War because their job opportunities were no longer limited to ‘traditional female jobs’, such as nursing. When millions of men joined the armed forces, women filled their places in factories, railways, and shipyards.

6 Which of the following had more impact on helping the American economy recover from the Depression:

• the New Deal
• the Second World War?

Explain your answer with reference to both bullet points. (12)

Mark scheme

Relevant points that could be included

• The New Deal helped the American economy recover from the Depression. For example, after the 1933 Emergency Banking Act reassured people, well-run banks were able to help grow the economy by lending money to well-run businesses, creating jobs. For example, legalising alcohol put many gangsters out of business and meant the government could raise money by taking sales. For example, the Alphabet Agencies created much-needed jobs.
• However, the New Deal wasn’t entirely successful. For example, unemployment never fell below 10 per cent in the 1930s and it started rising again after 1939. For example, millions of Americans continued to live in poverty throughout the 1930s. By 1939, some people thought America was ‘sliding downhill’ towards a depression again.
• The Second World War definitely helped the American economy recover from the Depression. For example, industries were converted from peacetime work to war work, unemployment fell because men joined the armed forces or took the extra jobs in factories, and farmers prospered because food was needed to feed the armed forces and to export abroad.
• Many have argued that it was the Second World War, not the New Deal, that most helped the American economy recover from the Depression, and I agree.

7 Post-war American society and economy

Read Interpretations A and B.

1 How does Interpretation B differ from Interpretation A about 1950s America? Explain your answer based on what it says in Interpretations A and B. (4)

Mark scheme

Relevant points that could be included

• Interpretation A describes 1950s America as a wonderful place, where everything was booming. The 1950s in America was a good time to get married, buy your own home, and have children.
• Interpretation B describes 1950s America as a dissatisfying place for many women, particularly for suburban wives, because their lives were all about shopping, cooking, cleaning, and looking after their children.

2 Why might the authors of Interpretations A and B have a different interpretation about 1950s America? Explain your answer using Interpretations A and B and your contextual knowledge. (4)

Mark scheme

Relevant points that could be included

• The author of Interpretation A is writing about the 1950s from the perspective of a journalist and an historian. He is not writing about his personal experiences, but about broad themes.
• The author of Interpretation B is writing about the 1950s from a very personal perspective. She is describing what she experienced and applying it to other women in the same position.

3 Which interpretation gives the more convincing opinion about 1950s America? Explain your answer based on your contextual knowledge and what it says in Interpretations A and B. (8)

Mark scheme

Relevant points that could be included

• Interpretation A is convincing because it describes the boom America experienced after the Second World War. The optimism generated by members of the armed forces returning home led to a ‘baby boom’, which in turn led to increased consumerism.
• Interpretation B is convincing because many women must have felt frustrated having to return to being homemakers after working during the Second World War. Although many people believed a woman was ‘living the American dream’ if she lived in suburbia with all the latest gadgets, there will have been a lot of women who felt dissatisfied.
• Interpretation B can be viewed as more convincing because it doesn’t feel like it is missing anything out, whereas Interpretation A does not describe how success and wealth in 1950s America were not distributed evenly throughout society.

4 Describe two problems faced by African-Americans during the Second World War. (4)

Mark scheme

Relevant points that could be included

• African-Americans experienced widespread discrimination during the Second World War, especially in weapons factories. For example, one aircraft maker employed only 10 African-Americans out of a workforce of 30,000.
• Initially, the roles available to African-Americans in the armed forces were severely limited. For example, African-American sailors could only work in ship’s kitchens.

5 In what ways were American voters affected by the 1932 presidential campaign? Explain your answer. (8)

Mark scheme

Relevant points that could be included

• Before the 1932 presidential election, Herbert Hoover was president. Hoover believed ‘rugged individualism’ would get America through the Depression and many people thought he did too little to help Americans and that many people suffered unnecessarily as a result.
• Many Americans blamed Hoover for the hardships they were experiencing during the Depression, and they expressed their anger by pelting his election train with eggs and tomatoes.
• Hoover’s main rival was Franklin Delano Roosevelt. Roosevelt’s optimism and his ‘New Deal’ caught the public’s imagination. Voters felt hopeful that Roosevelt could bring about the end of the Depression.

6 Which of the following had more impact on American society in the late 1940s and 1950s:

• consumerism
• McCarthyism?

Explain your answer with reference to both bullet points. (12)

Mark scheme

Relevant points that could be included

• Consumerism transformed American society in the late 1940s and 1950s. When the Second World War ended, factories switched to making consumer goods at prices millions could afford. For example, by the end of the 1950s, 9 out of 10 Americans had a television and 8 out of 10 households had a car. The economy grew strong and there was a ‘baby boom’.
• For five years from 1950, Senator Joseph McCarthy investigated thousands of people for being communists. His campaign created a huge sense of fear. To many, he was a hero who was working to keep America safe from communism. To others, he was leading a ‘witch hunt’. McCarthy’s influence on American society declined when he was unable to prove his accusations against 45 army officers.
• Both consumerism and McCarthyism impacted American society in the late 1940s and 1950s. However, consumerism’s impact was greater.
• While McCarthy eventually lost public support, consumerism continued and permanently changed American society. It led to the creation of the teenager and to the birth of Rock and Roll.

8 Racial tension and the Civil Rights campaigns in the 1950s and 1960s

Read Interpretations A and B.

1 How does Interpretation B differ from Interpretation A about the Civil Rights Movement? Explain your answer based on what it says in Interpretations A and B. (4)

Mark scheme

Relevant points that could be included

• Interpretation A argues that non-violent direct action was essential to the success of the Civil Rights Movement, because it ‘shifted power to the Black masses’ and ‘robbed the white structure’ of its ability to violently crush the movement without consequences.
• Interpretation B argues that non-violent direct action is not the way for Black people to achieve equality, because it is too passive and because it requires the United States to have a conscience (which, Stokely Carmichael argues, it does not).

2 Why might the authors of Interpretations A and B have a different interpretation about the Civil Rights Movement? Explain your answer using Interpretations A and B and your contextual knowledge. (4)

Mark scheme

Relevant points that could be included

• The author of Interpretation A is a professor who has spent his life studying social movements, civil rights, and social inequality. He is looking back at the Civil Rights Movement and is seeing the critical role non-violent direct action played in the movement’s achievements.
• The author of Interpretation B was a leading figure in the Black Power Movement. He is explaining why the Black Power Movement rejected the concept of non-violent direct action and argued that rights should be demanded more forcefully.

3 Which interpretation gives the more convincing opinion about the Civil Rights Movement? Explain your answer based on your contextual knowledge and what it says in Interpretations A and B. (8)

Mark scheme

Relevant points that could be included

• Interpretation A is convincing because the Civil Rights Movement achieved a lot of success with non-violent direct action, such as the Montgomery Bus Boycott, the lunch counter sit-ins, the freedom rides, and the March to Washington.
• Interpretation B is convincing because, while non-violent direct action did lead to the 1964 Civil Rights Act and to the 1968 Civil Rights Act, real change was very slow and Black Americans still experience prejudice and discrimination today.
• It can be argued that Interpretation A is more convincing because, while there is truth in what Stokely Carmichael argues, peaceful protests became a defining characteristic of the Civil Rights Movement. They attracted huge publicity, and many white people were disgusted by the violent acts committed by the authorities against peaceful protestors.

4 Describe two problems faced by American women during the 1950s. (4)

Mark scheme

Relevant points that could be included

• During the Second World War, women’s wages rose to two-thirds of those of men. During the 1950s, they fell back to 53 per cent.
• If women worked in the 1950s, their job opportunities tended to be limited to ‘female occupations’ like nursing and secretarial work. Women who attempted to pursue business or professional careers were treated with suspicion and often faced discrimination.

5 In what ways were the lives of African-Americans changed by peaceful protest in the 1950s and 1960s? Explain your answer. (8)

Mark scheme

Relevant points that could be included

• Peaceful protest led to the 1964 Civil Rights Act and the 1968 Civil Rights Act, which both significantly changed the lives of African-Americans. After the 1964 Civil Rights Act was passed, discrimination based on race and gender in employment was illegal, and public places could no longer be segregated. After the 1969 Civil Rights Act was passed, racial discrimination when buying and renting houses and other property became illegal.
• However, one of the biggest achievements of the Civil Rights Movement, the Supreme Court ruling of May 1954 that every education board in America had to end segregation in schools, came before what can be considered the first peaceful protest of the US Civil Rights Movement, the Montgomery Bus Boycott of 1955.
• Furthermore, although non-violent direct action had achieved a great deal by 1965, many African-Americans remained frustrated because they were still experiencing poverty, low wages, inadequate housing, and police brutality. This led to riots in most major American cities between 1965 and 1968.

6 Which of the following had more impact on the Civil Rights Movement:

• Brown v Board of Education of Topeka
• Montgomery Bus Boycott?

Explain your answer with reference to both bullet points. (12)

Mark scheme

Relevant points that could be included

• Brown v Board of Education of Topeka was the first big success of the Civil Rights Movement. It showed what opposing discrimination could achieve (in May 1954, the Supreme Court ruled that every education board in America had to end segregation in schools). But it also showed how difficult it would be to bring about real change (two years after the judgement, there was still not a single African-American child attending a school where there were white students in six southern states).
• The Montgomery Bus Boycott of 1955–56 also led to a Supreme Court ruling (that segregated buses were illegal). Also, it showed how difficult it would be to bring about real change (the Freedom Rides of 1961 occurred because some local authorities refused to desegregate their buses).
• Both Brown v Board of Education of Topeka and the Montgomery Bus Boycott had a significant impact on the Civil Rights Movement.
• However, it can be argued that the Montgomery Bus Boycott had more impact. It was led by Martin Luther King and demonstrated the power of non-violent direct action, which became a defining characteristic of the US Civil Rights Movement and led to the1964 and 1968 Civil Rights Acts.

9 America and the ‘Great Society’

Read Interpretations A and B.

1 How does Interpretation B differ from Interpretation A of John F. Kennedy’s presidency? Explain your answer based on what it says in Interpretations A and B. (4)

Mark scheme

Relevant points that could be included

• The author of Interpretation A argues that John F. Kennedy (JFK) was not the wonderful president many believe him to have been, because there is very little evidence to suggest that JFK would have been able to deliver the future he promised to the American people.
• The author of Interpretation B argues that JFK was inspirational, that there was a great deal of excitement when he became president, and that he should be ‘very high on the list of our presidents’.

2 Why might the authors of Interpretations A and B have a different interpretation about John F. Kennedy’s presidency? Explain your answer using Interpretations A and B and your contextual knowledge. (4)

Mark scheme

Relevant points that could be included

• The author of Interpretation A tends to sympathise with the Republican Party, while John F. Kennedy (JFK) was a Democrat. Therefore, it can be argued that he is criticising JFK because they were on opposite sides politically.
• The author of Interpretation B was a Democrat, just like JFK. Therefore, it can be argued that he supported JFK because they were on the same political side.

3 Which interpretation gives the more convincing opinion about John F. Kennedy’s presidency? Explain your answer based on your contextual knowledge and what it says in Interpretations A and B. (8)

Mark scheme

Relevant points that could be included

• Interpretation A is convincing because it is true that America never really got the chance to see what kind of president John F. Kennedy (JFK) could have been: he was elected in 1960 and assassinated in 1963.
• Interpretation B is convincing because the American people were excited when JFK became president and started to implement his ‘New Frontier’ to make America a better and fairer place to live. He achieved successes with the economy, with decreasing poverty, and with education.
• There were ‘New Frontier’ failures. For example, Congress defeated Medicare proposals and JFK’s plan to give more money to schools. These failures support the argument being made in Interpretation B and, as a result, Interpretation B seems to be more convincing.

4 Describe two problems faced by members of the Civil Rights Movement in the 1960s. (4)

Mark scheme

Relevant points that could be included

• Members of the Civil Rights Movement experienced threats and violence as they peacefully demanded equal rights for all. We can see evidence of this in the experiences of the Freedom Riders in 1961, the experiences of the marchers in Birmingham, Alabama, in 1693, and the murder of Martin Luther King in 1968.
• By the mid-1960s, some civil rights campaigners were frustrated at the slow pace of change. They rejected non-violence, and the idea of ‘Black power’ grew. This split the Civil Rights Movement.

5 In what ways did the lives of Americans change as a result of Supreme Court decisions? Explain your answer. (8)

Mark scheme

Relevant points that could be included

• The lives of African-Americans changed significantly when the Supreme Court ruled that every education board in America had to end segregation in schools in May 1954: Black students could now, theoretically, attend any school in the country. The lives of African-Americans also changed positively when the Supreme Court ruled that segregated buses were illegal in 1956: theoretically buses no longer had ‘whites only’ sections.
• The lives of women changed significantly when the Supreme Court ruled in 1972 that unmarried people had the same right to use contraception as married people: unmarried women could, theoretically, have sex without fear of getting pregnant. The lives of women also changed positively when the Supreme Court ruled in 1973 that women had the right to safe and legal abortions: theoretically, women were free to decide what happened to their bodies.
• Theoretically, the Supreme Court changed the lives of many Americans, but it often took a long time for the Supreme Court’s decisions to actually change things for most people. For example, two years after the Supreme Court’s decision, there was still not a single African-American child attending a school where there were white students in six southern states.

6 Which of the following had more impact on improving equality in American society:

• President Kennedy’s New Frontier
• President Johnson’s Great Society?

Explain your answer with reference to both bullet points. (12)

Mark scheme

Relevant points that could be included

• President Kennedy’s New Frontier achieved some successes, which improved some people’s lives and helped improve equality in American society. For example, the minimum hourly wage increased; loans were made available to improve housing, clear slums, and build roads; and the Social Security Act increased benefits for the elderly and the unemployed.
• However, many of the New Frontier successes did not tackle the issue of inequality head-on. For example, the increase in the minimum wage only helped those in work, unemployment remained high, and the unemployment rate for African-Americans remained twice that of white Americans.
• President Johnson’s Great Society also achieved some successes, which improved the lives of many people and helped to improve equality in American society. For example, the minimum hourly wage increased further; the number of people living in desperate poverty fell because of policies like ‘Operation Head Start’ and the Model Cities Act; and Medicare was created to fund healthcare for the elderly and low-income families.
• It can be argued that Johnson’s Great Society did more than Kennedy’s New Frontier to make American society more equal, because it tackled some of the big issues causing inequality directly: poor education, poor housing, and lack of healthcare. However, it should be noted that some of these ideas, such as Medicare, were part of the New Frontier, and maybe, if Kennedy hadn’t been assassinated, he could have done more.